Todays Plan: 4/22/16

Bellwork: Protist Notes (15 mins)

Continue protist activities, start
fungus parts 2 and 4 (45 mins)
Fungus notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 4/21/15
Bellwork: Mass Plants and record
Data (15 mins)
Roots, Stems and leaves activity (45
mins)
Continue notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 4/23/14
Bellwork: Mass plants and record
data (10 mins)
Finish protist activities (50 mins)
Fungus notes (the rest of class)
Todays Plan: 4/24/14
Bellwork: Mass and record your
plants (10 mins)
Plant organs activity (50 mins)
Finish fungus and begin plant
phylogeny notes (the rest of class)
Kingdom Protista
This is a very large, diverse Kingdom
Ecologically important
Main example of symbiosis=lichen (algae and fungus)
Traditionally thought of as having 3 sub-groups
Protozoa-Animal-like protists (heterotrophic)
Algae-Plant-like protists (autotrophic)
Cellular Slime Molds-Fungus-like protists (decomposers)
Modern scientists are close to splitting this into several Kingdoms
There are more subtle divisions than the ones described above
Many are unicellular, but some are multicellular
Not all are heterotrophic or autotrophic, but are mixotrophic, and
capable of combining Photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition
They have varied methods of reproduction
The Kingdom has been in a state of flux as scientists have tested
several hypotheses about the evolutionary relationships within the
kingdom via DNA analysis
The kingdom is therefore divided into 5 Candidate Kingdoms, or
Supergroups (Each book lists these differently)
In effect, the Supergroups are making us re-think the Kingdom system
as we know it, as a couple include plants, fungi, and animals
Figure 29-8

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

Chromalveolata Unikonta

Discicristata
Excavata Alveolata Stramenopila Rhizaria Plantae Opisthokonta Amoebozoa
es ld
s
h yt g ae
te s
ae o
s s te
s
a a io
p al lla eb e
m
d d l a x ae r n te e s g e o m l s
s
a ona sali ds gel pl
e
te alg nife ch hy ae lga a nt f la s am r sl
i
dia old
ir a e i e s i a p g a l o l e o m
te cha m a n es la m yc tom wn am rar uco al p
gi an
a
os llul
a
c plo rab g le
i at nof i co m a o r lo a d een nd n o i m b a sm ime
r l i r e n
B
a A D
i
Pa Eu C
i D Ap O
o
D
i B Fo Ch G
l R G
r
La Fu C
h A Lo C
e Pl sl

Green
plants

Eight major lineages

of eukaryotes (protist
branches are in color)
Figure 29-11

THE ENDOSYMBIOSIS THEORY

Pyruvate
and O2
Aerobic
bacterium
ATP

Anaerobic 1. Eukaryotic cell 2. Bacterium lives 3. Eukaryote supplies

eukaryote surrounds and within eukaryotic bacterium with protection
engulfs bacterium. cell. and carbon compounds.
Bacterium supplies
eukaryote with ATP.
Figure 29-10
ORIGIN OF THE NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
1. Ancestor of the
eukaryotes.
Chromosomes
Plasma membrane

2. Infoldings of
plasma membrane
surround the
chromosomes.

3. Eukaryotic cell.

Nucleus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Figure 29-19
Amoeboid motion via pseudopodia

Swimming via flagella

Swimming via cilia

Figure 29-14

Pseudopodia engulf food Ciliary currents sweep food into gullet

Cilia

Gullet

Protist
Food
Prey items
Pseudopodium
Figure 29-3-Table 29-1
Supergroup Excavates
This is a newly-proposed clade with an excavated feeding
groove on one side of the cell
They also have a unique cytoskeleton
3 Divisions
Diplomonads-have a modified mitochondria (mitosome) that
lacks an electron transport chain
Contain 2 equal-sized nuclei
Have multiple flagella
Many are parasitic
Ex: Giardia lamblia (intenstinal parasite)
Parabasalids-reduced mitochondria called hydrogenosomes,
releasing Hydrogen gas as a waste product of respiration
Ex: Trichomonas vaginalis (an STD)
Euglenozoans-a Mixotroph that is predominantly autotrophic,
but can become heterotrophic if deprived of light
Contains 2 main groups
Kinetoplastids (ex: Trypanosoma that causes African sleeping
sickness)-1 large mitochondrian and a mass of organized DNA
called a Kinetoplast
Euglenoids (ex: the Euglena that we examine in lab)
Figure 29-23

Giardia lamblia

Two nuclei
Figure 29-24

Trichomonas vaginalis

Cluster of flagella

Rod of microtubules
Figure 29-26

Euglena gracilis
Chloroplasts
Eyespot

Flagellum
Supergroup Chromalveolates
May have evolved by secondary
endosymbiosis where a common ancestor
engulfed a red alga (which itself evolved by
primary endosymbiosis)
Large group with many subgroups
Alveolates have a membrane-bound sac under
the plasma membrane whose function is
unknown They include Dinoflagellates,
Apicomplexans, and Cilliates
Stramenopiles are marine algae with numerous,
fine flagella and includes Diatoms, Golden Algae,
Brown Algae, and Oomycetes (Water molds)
Figure 29-16
SECONDARY ENDOSYMBIOSIS
Predatory
protist
Photosynthetic
Nucleus protist

Chloroplast

Nucleus

1. Photosynthetic
protist is engulfed.

2. Nucleus from
photosynthetic
protist is lost.

Organelle with
four membranes
3 4
1 2
Alveolates
Dinoflagellates-Have cells that are reinforced by cellulose
plates like armor
Many are photosynthetic, but have mixotrophic tendancies
Cause Blooms like red tides in costal waters
Ex: Pfiesteria in the Neuse River
Apicomplexans-All are parasitic of animals with a complex
life cycle involving a vector
Ex: Plasmodium which causes Malaria
Cilliates-So called for obvious reasons
Ex: Paramecium
Have 2 nuclei
Micronuclei divide via meiosis to become haploid and are
exchanged during conjugation
Macronuclei are produced from fused micronuclei
Figure 29-18

Dinoflagellate
cells
Figure 29-20a

A life cycle dominated by haploid cells (species shown here is the dinoflagellate Gynodinium fuscum)

(n)
(n)
ASEXUAL SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION
(offspring produced (offspring produced
by mitosis) by meiosis)

N O
TI
ZA
LI
Mature

TI
I S

R
S cell

FE
TO
I (n)
M
SIS Zygote
MEIO Haploid
(2n) Diploid
Figure 29-3

MITOSIS MITOSIS
Cell type that infects humans
during a mosquito bite
M IT
(present in mosquito saliva) OS
IS
(n)
in human
Infection of liver cells (n)

In ce

MI
fe lls

TO
ct
io in

SI
n hu

S
of m
re an
Human host

d
bl s
oo
Mosquito host

d
Infectio Male
n of gut gamete (n)
wall in
mosqu
ito
ME
foll IOSIS
ow Cell types that infect
MIT ed by Oocyst FERTILI
OSI ZATION mosquitoes during a
S (2n) Female
mosquito bite (present
gamete (n)
in human blood)
Figure 29-15

Cilia

Cell mouth

Contractile
vacuole

Gullet
Macronucleus and
micronucleus

Food
vacuoles
Anal pore
Stramenopiles
Diatoms-Unicellular algae with a glass-like wall of silicon
dioxide
Include approximately 100,000 species
Nanoengineers are studying their tests (shells) for
manufacturing minute motors or medicine delivery systems
Blooms can occur when nutrients are available, causing many
to die and sink to the bottom of the ocean, where theyre less
likely to be broken down by bacteria, suggesting that they can
help remove Carbon from the atmosphere and keep it out of
the atmosphere
Golden Algae-Contain large amounts of carotenoids, giving
them a golden color
Brown Algae-Commonly called Seaweed which exhibits
alternation of generations (complex life cycle)
Oomycetes-Also known as the water molds, white rusts, and
downy mildews, and were previously classified as fungi
Figure 29-32

Actinoptychus heliopelta

Glass tests
Figure 29-20b

A life cycle dominated by diploid cells (species shown here is the diatom Cyclotella meneghiniana)

MEIOSIS Gametes
(n)
(2n)
MITOSIS

ASEXUAL SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION REPRODUCTION

N
(offspring produced (offspring produced

O
TI
by mitosis) by meiosis)

ZA
Mature

I
IL
RT
cell
SIS

FE
TO (2n)
MI H
Zygote
GROWT (2n)
Figure 29-34

Durvillaea species

Blade

Stipe

Holdfast
Figure 29-21
Alternation of generations in which multicellular haploid and diploid forms look identical (here, Ectocarpus siliculosus)
Male and female
gametophytes
Meiosis occurs in MITOSIS are separate
specialized structures IS
IOS Spores
ME (n)

MIT
OSI
S

Gametes are
produced by
Gametophytes mitosis in
(n) specialized
structures

M Gametes Sperm
Sporophyte ITOS Egg (n)
(2n) IS
Haploid
Diploid
Zygote geminates and Zygote FERTILIZATION
grows into sporophyte (2n)

Alternation of generations in which multicellular haploid and diploid forms look different (here, Laminaria solidungula)
Meiosis occurs in
specialized structures
MITO
SI S
SIS Spores Male and female
M EIO (n) gametophytes
are separate
MIT
OSI
S

Gametophytes
(n)
Sperm
M
IT
O
SI
S

Sporophyte Egg
(2n) TION
Zygote germinates and FER TILIZA
MITOSIS Zygote
grows into sporophyte (2n)
Figure 29-33

Phytophthora infestans

Structures
that
produce
spores
Supergroup Rhizaria
These have typically been known as the
amoebas, however, we now know that
amoebas are not monophyletic
Contains 2 main groups
Forams (Foraminforans) which have a calcium
carbonate test with pseudopods extending
through the test
Radiolarians have symmetrical internal skeletons
made of sillica with the pseudopods radiating
from the central part of the cell
Figure 29-36

Calcarina species
Pseudopodia
projecting
from shell
Supergroup Archaeplastida
2 main groups of protists, but also includes
land plants
Red Algae (rhodophytes)-contain phycoerythrin,
making them appear reddish in color. Most are
multicellular
Also called seaweed
Used to make nori for sushi
Green Algae (viridplantae)-Many argue placing
these in the plant kingdom because off their
pigment composition and structure. Many are
leafy
Figure 29-38

Lithothamnion species
Supergroup Unikonta
This group is recently proposed and includes animals and
fungi
This is somewhat controversial
Includes Amoebozoans (Protists)and Opisthokonts (fungi
and animals)
Amoebozoans are split into:
Slime Molds
Cellular Slime Molds-These can actually be unicellular or
multicellular, depending on food availability (less
food=multicellularity). Theyr mostly haploid (only the zygote
is diploid).
Plasmodial Slime Molds-usually yellow or orange and form a
mass called a plasmodium. Its 1 multinucleate cell with lots of
cytoplasm that streams to distribute nutrients. They actually
pulse!
Gymnamoebas-Found in soil and fresh water. Can eat bacteria
or detritus
Entamoebas-All parasitic and generally spread through
contaminante drinking water and food (Ex: E. histolytica cause
amebic dyssentry)
Figure 29-40
Physarum polycephalum

Single cell
with many
nuclei
Kingdom Fungi
Ecologically important group of organisms b/c theyre
decomposers
Recall from Biology class that fungi are a network of
threadlike hyphae called mycelium (the mushroom is
only the spore-delivery system, not the body of the
fungus)
Septa divide the cells in the hyphae, but the septa
have pores that allow ribosomes, mitochondria, and
even nuclei to flow between cells
Cell walls made of chitin (a polysaccharide)
Have extracellular digestion with many varied
enzymes and absorb nutrients
Mostly multicellular (except yeasts)
Figure 31-6

Both the reproductive structure and mycelium are composed of hyphae. Hyphae are usually broken
into compartments by septa.
Hyphae
Cell wall

Reproductive Septum
structure
Pore
Hyphae

Mycelium
Figure 31-5

Single-celled fungi are called yeasts. Multicellular fungi have weblike bodies called mycelia.
Fungal Reproduction
Fungi reproduce using spores, mostly haploid cells
that develop into new fungi
Spores are produced via Sporangia (spore-delivery
structrue ex: mushroom) in one of two ways:
Sexual-hyphae of adjacent organisms touch and fuse
(plasmogamy), creating cells that are n+n
(dikaryotic-2 nuclei). At some point, the nuclei fuse
(karyogamy), forming diploid nuclei. These go
through meiosis, and form spores within the
sporangia (fruiting body)
Asexual-spores are produced via mitosis in the adult
organism. Yeasts go through a process called
budding to reproduce
Figure 31-13a

The same sequence of events is common to most fungal life cycles.

Heterokaryotic
Spore-producing mycelium
structure (n + n)
(n) MITOS MY
IS
O GA
M
AS f KA
PL i ono (fu
nu sio RY
s m
(fu oplas rent cle n OG
dif i f of AM
cyt diffe als)
MITOSIS

ind fe ro Y
m u SEXUAL ivi enr m
ASEXUAL fro divid du t
in REPRODUCTION als
REPRODUCTION ) Zygote
Spore-producing (2n)
structure
(n)
O SIS
MIT I
OSI ME
Spores MITOSIS Mycelium S
(n) (n) Spores Haploid (n)
(n)
Heterokaryotic (n + n)
Diploid (2n)
Ecological importance of Fungi
Lichens-symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an algae.
These provide food in extreme habitats, since they can withstand
extremes (usually considered a mutualistic relationship, but
modern scientists are thinking that this may be a controlled
parasitic relationship since its unclear how the algae benefits)
Mycorrhizal Relationships-symbiotic relationship in which the
hyphae of fungi become intertwined with plant roots. Fungus
increases the surface area for absorption and decomposes organic
material in the soil. The plant provides the fungus sugars. This
also connects plants to one another for nutrient transfer
Endophytes-fungi living inside of plants. The fungus is protected
and fed, while protecting the plant from parasitism (a recent
discovery was made in which the endophyte produced
Animal-Fungus Symbioses-cattle keep fungi in their guts to help
them digest cellulose and lignin
Leaf-cutter ants farm fungus to break down the leaves for them. In
return, the ants spread the fungus. The ants also culture bacteria that
produce antibiotics to combat invasion of the colony by other fungi.
Figure 31-20

Cross section of a lichen, showing three layers Top view of lichens on a rock
Asexual reproduction Asci
occurs when mini-lichens produced by
are produced fungus

Soredia

Fungal layer
Algal layer

Fungal layer

Substrate
Figure 31-1

With Without
normal
mycorrhizal
fungi
Figure 31-3

Atmospheric CO2 Pl
an
ts

Release of CO2 Fixation

from cellular of CO2
respiration by by plants
plants, animals,
fungi, and other
organisms

Pla
nts
Fu
ng
i
An
im
al
s

Fungal mycelia
convert cellulose and
lignin (from wood) into
sugars and other small
organic compounds
Fungal Pathogens
There are several animal diseases caused by fungi-
Aspergillosis (lung infection), athletes foot, ringworm
Fungal infections in plants are often very destructive-
corn smut, brown rot in fruit, blights, etc
The fungus enters the plant through the stomates, or
uses enzymes to dissolve the cuticle of the plant
These can produce a specialized hyphae called a
Haustoria, which penetrates the cells of the plant and
absorbs nutrients from the cytoplasm of the plants
cells.
Some fungi produce poisons called mycotoxins, which
can destroy tissue and cause death
Figure 31-4

Parasitic fungi infect corn and Saprophytic fungi rot

other crop plants. fruits and vegetables.
Uses of Fungi
Food and Beverages-yeasts are used to
make alcoholic beverages, cheeses use
molds to give them flavor, other species are
used for other fermentation (soy sauce),
and many mushrooms are edible
Medical uses-penicillins come from bread
mold, yeasts are used in biomedical
research to study problems with molecular
genetics, and research into using fungi for
controlling pest populations is ongoing
Fungal Origin and Phylogeny
Probably originated from an aquatic, single-celled protist
Split into 5 main Phyla:
Chytrids-Have flagellate spores, inhabit ponds and damp soil,
unicellular or only composed of a few cells, and a few species have
alternation of generations
Zygomycetes- (ex: Black Bread mold)Live in soil or decaying plants,
and some form mycorrhizal relationships with plants,
Produce zygospores for sexual reproduction and often are self-sterile,
but can reproduce when they contact an individual of a different mating
type
Includes Microspores-small parasitic spores of eukaryotic cells
Glomeromycetes-these form most of the mycorrhizal relationships with
plants. They have no septa in their hyphae,extend their hyphae into
the cell walls of plants, but not the plasma membrane
Ascomycetes-(ex: most yeasts, powdery mildews, pink, blue-green,
and brown mold, also morels and truffles) Produce ascospores for
sexual reproduction,and conidia for asexual reproduction. Are
commonly called sac fungi b/c o the asci that hold the sexual spores
(think about the Sordaria lab)
Basidiomycetes- (ex: bracket fungi, mushrooms, puffballs) Commonly
called the club fungi b/c they produce a club-shaped basidium for
sexual reproduction. They produce spores outside the basidium as
opposed to the ascomycetes that produce spores inside of the asci.
Basidia are within the gills of the fruiting body
Figure 31-7

Chytridiomycota make Zygomycota hyphae Basidiomycota form Ascomycota form

swimming gametes and yoke together and form spores on basidia (little spores in asci (sacs).
spores. a zygosporangium. pedestals).

Gametes Zygosporangium
Spores
Ascus
Spore Spores

Basidia

Flagella Hyphae Hyphae Hyphae

Figure 31-13b

Chytridiomycota include the only fungi in which alternation of generations occurs.

FUSION Spores form in
IS MIT sporangia
ITOS OS
M (plasmogamy and Zygote IS
karyogamy occur (2n)
MITOSIS Gametes simultaneously)
Sporophytic
(n) mycelium
Gametophytic
mycelium (2n)
(n)
Gametes form in
gametangia

Spore 2n
IS
(n)
n MEIOS
Figure 31-13R Zygomycota form yoked hyphae that produce a spore-forming structure (zygosporangium).
PLASMOGA
MY
Zygosporangium
(n + n)

Coenocytic Hyphae
hyphae fuse

Spores
(n) Zygote

AMY n+n
YOG
MITOSIS KAR
n MEIOSIS 2n

Basidiomycota have reproductive structures with many spore-producing basidia.

MEIOSIS
KARYOGAMY 2n

Spores (n)
Spores (n) germinate
Basidium
Mature spore- to form
producing body hyphae
(n + n)

Heterokaryotic mycelium Hyphae of different

begins to grow mating types fuse IS
OS
MIT

PLASMOGAMY

Ascomycota have reproductive structures with many spore-producing asci.

IS MITOSIS
IOS
ME
Spores (n) germinate
Ascocarp (mature to form hyphae
MY
spore-producing OGA
body) (n + n) KARY Spores MIT
OSI
(n) S
2n
Ascus

Eight spores
formed

Structures containing
Dikaryotic mycelium many nuclei form
begins to grow
MIT
OS Hyphae of different
IS
mating types make
contact and fuse
PLASMOGAMY