National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur

Department of Civil Engineering

CE-472(c)
Geosynthetics
Rakesh Kumar Dutta,
Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Shallow foundations
The geosynthetic-reinforced
foundation soils are being used to
support footings of many
structures including warehouses,
oil drilling platforms, platforms of
heavy industrial equipments,
parking areas, and bridge
abutments. In usual construction
practice, one or more layers of
geosynthetic are placed inside a
controlled granular fill beneath the
footings. Such reinforced
foundation soils provide improved
load-bearing capacity and reduced
settlements by distributing the
imposed loads over a wider area of
weak subsoil. In the conventional
construction techniques without
any use of the reinforcement, a
thick granular layer is needed
which may be costly or may not be
possible, especially in the sites of
limited availability of good-quality
granular materials.
Geosynthetic products
like Paralink as
shown in Figure (a)
can be very effective
for use over soft
foundation soils as
well as over voids
and piles (Fig. (b)).
The ideal reinforcing pattern has geosynthetic
layers placed horizontally below the footing,
which becomes progressively steeper farther
from the footing (Fig. (a)). It means that the
reinforcement should be placed in the
direction of the major principal strain.
However, for practical simplicity,
geosynthetic sheets are often laid
horizontally as shown in Figure (b).
Filters and Drains
 The role of groundwater flow and good drainage in the stability of
pavements, foundations, retaining walls, slopes, and waste-containment
systems is gaining attention from engineers, practitioners, and researchers
alike. That is why geosynthetics are being increasingly employed either as
filters, in the form of geotextiles (nonwovens and lightweight wovens), in
conjunction with granular materials and/or pipes (Fig. (a)), or as both filters
and drains in the form of geocomposites (Fig. (b)). Filters also form an
essential part of many types of hydraulic structures. Thus, there are several
application areas for filters and drains including buried drains as pavement
edge drains/underdrains, seepage water transmission systems in pavement
base course layers and railway tracks, abutments and retaining wall drainage
systems, slope drainage, erosion control systems, landfill leachate collection
systems, drains to accelerate consolidation of soft foundation soils, drainage
blanket to dissipate the excess pore pressure beneath embankments and
within the dams and silt fences/barriers.
A filter consists of any porous material that has openings small enough
to prevent movement of soil into the drain and that is sufficiently
pervious to offer little resistance to seepage. When a geosynthetic is
used as a filter in drainage applications, it prevents upstream soils
from entering adjacent granular layers or subsurface drains. When
properly designed, the geosynthetic filter promotes the unimpeded
flow of water by preventing the unacceptable movement of fines into
the drain, which can reduce the performance of the drain.
Geosynthetic filters are being used successfully to replace
conventional graded granular filters in several drainage applications.
In fact, filter structures can be realized by using granular materials
(i.e. crushed stone) or geotextiles or a combination of these materials
(Fig.). The choice between the graded granular filter or geotextile
filter depends on several factors.
When using riprapgeotextile filter, it is recommended
that a layer of aggregate be placed between the
geotextile and the riprap, for the following reasons
(Giroud, 1992):
to prevent damage of the geotextile by the large rocks
to prevent geotextile degradation by light passing
between large rocks
to apply a uniform pressure on the geotextile, thereby
ensuring close contact between the geotextile filter
and the sloping ground, which is necessary to ensure
proper filtration
to prevent geotextile movement between the rocks
because of wave action, thereby ensuring permanent
contact between the geotextile filter and the sloping
ground, which is also necessary to ensure proper
filtration.
Vertical strip drains (also called prefabricated vertical band
drains (PVD) or wick drains) are geocomposites used for land
reclamation or for stabilization of soft ground. They
accelerate the consolidation process by reducing the time
required for the dissipation of excess pore water pressure.
The efficiency of the drains is partly controlled by the
transmissivity, that is discharge capacity that can be
measured, using the drain tester, to check their short-term
and long-term performance. The discharge capacity of drains
is affected by several factors such as confining pressure,
hydraulic gradient, length of specimen, stiffness of filter and
the duration of loading. The experimental study, conducted
in the laboratory by Broms et al. (1994), suggests that the
effect of the length of the drains and the duration of loading
on the discharge capacity of the drain is small, whereas the
stiffness of the filter of drain can have a considerable effect.
The discharge capacity of the drain decreases with
decreasing stiffness of the filter.
In filter applications,
the design must be
prepared so as to
avoid, throughout
the design life, the
following three
phenomena causing
decrease of the
permeability of the
geotextile filter in
course of time:
1 blocking
2 blinding
3 clogging.
Erosion Control
The problem of soil movement due to
erosive forces by moving water and/or
wind as well as by seeping water is
called soil erosion. Gravity is also one
of the prime agents of soil erosion,
particularly on steep slopes. Soil
erosion is associated with negative
economic and environmental
consequences in many areas such as
agriculture, river and coastal
engineering, highway engineering,
slope engineering and some more
sections of civil engineering.
Construction sites with unvegetated steep
slopes are prime targets for soil erosion.
Soil erosion by moving water is caused by
two mechanisms: (1) detachment of
particles due to raindrop impact and (2)
movement of particles from surface water
flow. The dislodged particles carry with
them seeds and soil nutrients. Natural
growth of vegetation on the exposed soil
slope surface is thus hindered. High velocity
runoff can cause not only surface soil
movement downslope, but their scouring
effects can cause total undermining of
slopes. Rain erosion can act upon a land
surface of any degree of slope; however,
the severity of rain erosion increases with
increasing slope steepness and slope
length.
The exposed denuded slopes become
increasingly vulnerable to erosion agents and
are ultimately destabilized. To control erosion
is to curb or restrain the gradual or sudden
wearing away of soils by wind and moving
water. The goal of any erosion control project
should be to stabilize soils and manage
erosion in an economical manner. Since
surface water flow cannot be eliminated, the
most feasible solution to erosion problems is
slope protection. The slope protection serves
two functions: (1) it slows down the surface
water flow and (2) it holds soil particles,
grass or seedlings in place. If an element is
incorporated into the soil to prevent the
detachment and transportation of soil
particles, then the slope would be able to
withstand greater forces.
The solutions of soil erosion problems typically involve
the use of basic erosion control techniques such as
soil cover and soil retention. The use of revetments is
very common in civil engineering practice for erosion
control (Fig.). A cover layer (called armour) of a
revetment can be permeable or impermeable. An
open cover layer substantially reduces the uplift
pressures, which can be induced in the sublayers and
provides protection against the external loads. Riprap,
blocks and block mats, grouted stones, gabions and
mattresses, and concrete and asphalt slabs are most
commonly used as revetment armours.
Three-dimensional erosion control geosynthetic mats and geocells that
are nowadays commercially available with various dimensions can be
used in permanent erosion control systems. Geocells are three-
dimensional honeycomb structures that have a unique cellular
confinement system formed by a series of self-containing cells up to
20 cm deep. They have the ability to physically confine the soil
placed inside the cells (Fig.). They retain soil, moisture and seed, and
thus create situations for the growth of vegetative mats on slopes
where vegetation may be difficult to establish. The vegetative mats
provide reinforcement and the systems cells increase the natural
resistance of these mats to erosive forces and protect the root zone
from soil loss. At the same time, the cellular confinement system
facilitates slope drainage.
The most common and natural element used for erosion control is
vegetation. Roots of the grasses protect the slope surface from
erosion. The deeper roots of plants, shrubs and trees tend to
reinforce and stabilize the deeper soils. The application of
vegetation as bank protection is preferred rather than the
application of conventional materials such as riprap, concrete
blocks, etc. If necessary, vegetation and appropriate geosynthetics
can be applied in combination (Fig.). The selection of vegetation
must be done on the basis of soil and climatic conditions of the
specific area of application. The vegetation will on the one hand
stabilize the body of the channel, consolidate the soil mass of the
slope and bed and reduce erosion. On the other hand, the presence
of vegetation will result in extra turbulence and retardation of flow.
Geotextiles and other perforated geosynthetics and open blocks
provide additional strength to the root mat and can reduce much of
the direct mechanical disturbance to plants and soil.
Geotextiles are also used in toe and bed
protection, which consists of the
armouring of the beach or bottom surface
in front of a structure to prevent scouring
and undercutting by water waves and
currents (Fig.). The stability of toe is
essential, because its failure will
generally lead to failure of the entire
structure.
In many cases, geotextile is used to wrap a
fill material (sand, gravel, asphalt or
mortar), creating geobags, geotubes or
geomats, known collectively as
geocontainers, which are used in
hydraulic and coastal engineering (Fig. ).
Ponds, Reservoirs, and Canals
Liquid containment and conveyance facilities, such
as ponds, reservoirs and canals, are required in
several areas including hydraulic, irrigation and
environmental engineering. Unlined ponds,
reservoirs, and canals can lose 2050% of their
water to seepage. Traditionally, soil, cement,
concrete, masonry or other stiff materials have
been used for lining ponds, reservoirs and canals.
The effectiveness and longevity of such materials
are generally limited due to cracking, settlement
and erosion. Sometimes the traditional materials
may be unavailable or unsuitable due to
construction site limitations, and they may also be
costly.
Flexible geosynthetic lining materials, such as
geomembranes, have been gaining popularity
as the most cost-effective lining solution
alone or in combination with conventional
lining material for a number of applications,
including irrigation and potable water. Figure
below shows typical schematics of liquid
containment and conveyance facilities
(ponds, reservoirs, and canals) involving
application of geosynthetics in addition to
conventional materials.
Geosynthetic liner/barrier materials can be
classified as GMBs, GCLs, thin-film geotextiles
composites or asphalt cement-impregnated
geotextiles. The selection of lining material is
governed by the location and environmental
factors. Placement, handling and soil covering
operations can also affect geosynthetic
selection. When GMBs are used as lining
material, geotextiles can be used with GMBs for
their protection against puncture by the
granular protective layer, which may also be
required to prevent UV- and infrared-induced
ageing of geosynthetics, as well as any effects
of vandalism and burrowing animals. A
geotextile, if used below the GMB liner, can
function as a protection layer as well as a
drainage medium for the rapid removal of
leaked water, if any. For economical reasons,
the GMB liner may be left uncovered.
Earth Dams
Earth dams are water impounding massive
structures and are normally constructed
using locally available soils and rocks. One
of the principal advantages of earth dams
is that their construction is very economical
compared to the construction costs of
concrete dams. Apart from the
conventional materials used in the earth
dam, geosynthetics are being employed in
recent times for new dam constructions
and for the rehabilitation of the older dams.
Properly designed and correctly installed
geosynthetics, in an earth dam, contribute
to increase in its safety which corresponds
to a positive environmental impact on dam
structures (Singh and Shukla, 2002).
The reasons for which geosynthetics are used
extensively in earth dam construction and
rehabilitation are the following:
The use of geosynthetics in earth dams may
serve several functions: water barrier,
drainage, filtration, protection and
reinforcement.
The geosynthetics are soft and flexible
therefore, they can endure some elasto-plastic
deformations resulting from the subsidence,
expansion, landslide and seepage of soil.
The geosynthetics (geotextiles and geogrids)
possess certain mechanical strength, which is
favourable as dam-filling materials.
The permeability of geomembranes is much
lower than that of clay or concrete.
The long-term performance of various components of an
earth dam is critical to the performance of the dam as a
whole. If a geotextile is to be used as a filter, careful
assessment of the properties, extensive testing and
monitoring are required to ensure its suitability. The
locations in earth dams where geotextile filters may be
used are in the downstream chimney drain and in the
downstream drainage blanket (see Fig.). If the dam is
subjected to rapid drawdown, then drainage systems
using geosynthetics may also be installed on the
upstream side of the core. In the past, geotextile filters,
mostly nonwovens, have been used for the construction
or the rehabilitation of numerous embankment dams
(i.e. earth or earth and rockfill dams) in various parts of
the world.
Tunnels
Tunnels are used for various purposes
in civil engineering, including traffic
movement and fluid flow. Waterproof
tunnels are required at some
sections of the highway and railway
alignments. A crack-free concrete
lining is needed for a waterproof
tunnel. Geotextiles and
geomembranes are commonly used
in modern-day tunnel technology to
construct waterproof tunnels.
Figure below shows the cross-section of a tunnel vault with the
general arrangement of the lining system. The shotcrete
lining placed over the excavated surface provides a smooth
surface for the geosynthetics. In addition the rock surface is
supported by the shotcrete immediately after excavation so
that the radially acting forces can be accepted adhesively
(Wagner and Hinkel, 1987). The nonwoven geotextile
(generally needle-punched) acts as a drainage layer and as
protection for a waterproofing geomembrane. It also acts as
a cushion (stress-relieving layer) to significantly reduce the
formation of cracks in the inner concrete lining by allowing
free shrinkage deformation of the concrete during the
setting process.
It should be noted that geomembrane
sheet sealing with a protective
nonwoven geotextiles drainage layer
has predominated over the
conventional sealing methods such
as asphalt membranes or spray
applied glass fibre-reinforced plastic
or bitumen-latex based products. The
geosynthetic system not only meets
the demands of the rapid tunnelling
rates but also the demands for rough
construction treatment.
Stabilization
Slopes can be natural or man-made. Several
natural and man-made factors, which
have been identified as the cause of
instability to slopes, are well known to the
civil engineering community. Many of the
problems of the stability of natural slopes
are radically different from those of man-
made slopes mainly in terms of
1. The nature of soil materials involved
2. The environmental conditions, location of
groundwater level
3. The stress history
In man-made slopes, there are also essential
differences between cuts and
embankments. The latter are structures
which are built with relatively well-
controlled materials.
In cuts, however, this possibility does not exist. The
failures of slopes, called landslides, may result in loss of
property and lives and create inconvenience in several
forms to our normal activities. Several slope
stabilization methods are available to improve the
stability of unstable slopes. The slope stabilization
methods generally reduce driving forces, increase
resisting forces, or both. The advent of geosynthetic
reinforcement materials has brought a new dimension
of efficiency to stabilize the unstable and failed slopes
by constructing various forms of structures such as
reinforced slopes, retaining walls, etc. mainly due to
their corrosive resistance and long-term stability. In
recent years geosynthetic-reinforced slopes have
provided innovative and cost-effective solutions to
slope stabilization problems, particularly after a slope
failure has occurred or if a steeper than safe
unreinforced slope is desirable. They provide a wide
array of design advantages as mentioned below:
 Reduce land requirement to facilitate a change in grade
Provide additional usable area at toe or crest of slope
Use available on-site soil to balance earthwork
quantities
Eliminate import costs of select fill or export costs of
unsuitable fill
Meet steep changes in grade, without the expense of
retaining walls
Eliminate concrete face treatments, when not required
for surficial stability or erosion control
Provide a natural vegetated face treatment for
environmentally sensitive areas
Provide noise abatement for high traffic areas and
minimize vandalism
Offer a design that is easily adjustable for surcharge
loadings from buildings and vehicles.
Thank You