DNA, RNA, and the Flow of

Genetic Information

Dr. Marhaen Hardjo, M.Biomed, PhD

Bagian Biokimia Fakultas Kedokteran

Universitas Hasanuddin Makassar
Humans share 50% of their DNA with bananas.

Cells can contain 6-9 feet of DNA. If all the DNA in your body
was put end to end, it would reach to the sun and back over 600
times.

DNA in all humans is 99.9 percent identical. It is about one tenth

of one percent that makes us all unique, or about 3 million
nucleotides difference.

DNA can store 25 gigabytes of information per inch and is the

most efficient storage system known to human. So, humans are
better than computers!!

Inan average meal, you eat approximately 55,000,000 cells or

between 63,000 to 93,000 miles of DNA.

It
would take a person typing 60 words per minute, eight hours a
day, around 50 years to type the human genome.
DNA is composed of units called NUCLEOTIDES,
NUCLEOTIDES which are
composed of three sub-molecules:

1. Pentose Sugar (deoxyribose)

2. Phosphate
3. Nitrogen Base (purine or pyrimidine)
DNA is composed of two
complimentary strands of nucleotides
joined by hydrogen bonds:

Adenine with Thymine (A-T or T-A)

They join with 2 hydrogen bonds

Cytosine with Guanine (C-G or G-C)

They join with 3 hydrogen bonds

DNA twists into a double helix

Nucleic Acid Structure
What structural features do DNA and RNA
share?
Polymers of nucleotides

Each nucleotide contains sugar,

phosphate, nitrogen containing base

Each nucleic acid contains 4 different

nucleotides
Nucleic Acid Structure
What differentiates
DNA from RNA?
Type of pentose

sugar
Nucleic Acid Structure
The nitrogen containing bases derived from
purine and pyrimidine
Nucleic Acid Structure
What makes up the backbone of the nucleic acids?
Nucleic Acid Structure
What contributes to the stability of nucleic
acids?
Negative charge of phosphodiester bridge

Repels nucleophiles

What is the difference between a nucleotide

and a nucleoside?
DNA Structure
DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged
into a ladder-like structure called a Double Helix.

A molecule of DNA is made up of millions of tiny

subunits called Nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of:

1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar
3. Nitrogenous base
Nucleotides

Phosphate

Nitrogenous
Base

Pentose
Sugar
Nucleotides
The phosphate and sugar form the backbone of
the DNA molecule, whereas the bases form the
rungs.

There are four types of nitrogenous bases.

Nucleotides

A T

Adenine Thymine

C G

Cytosine Guanine
Nucleotides
Each base will only bond with one other
specific base.

Adenine (A)
Form a base
Thymine (T)
pair.

Cytosine (C)
Form a base
Guanine (G)
pair.
DNA Structure
Because of this complementary base pairing,
the order of the bases in one strand determines
the order of the bases in the other strand.
A T

C G

T A

C G

A T

G C

T A
DNA Structure
To crack the genetic code found in DNA we
need to look at the sequence of bases.

The bases are arranged in triplets called codons.

A G G - C T C - AAG - T C C - T AG
T C C - G AG - T T C - AG G - AT C
DNA Structure
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein.

Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases.

This unique sequence of bases will code for the

production of a unique protein.

It is these proteins and combination of proteins that

give us a unique phenotype.
 DNA
Gene
Protein

Trait
Nucleic Acid Structure
What are the DNA nucleotides?
Deoxyadenosine-5-phosphate

Deoxyguanosine-5-phosphate

Deoxycytidine-5-phosphote

Deoxythymidine-5-phosphate
Nucleic Acid Structure
What are the RNA nucleotides?
Adenosine-5-phosphate

Guanosine-5-phosphate

Cytidine-5-phosphate

Uridine-5-phosphate
Nucleic Acid Structure
How is the base bound
to a sugar?
-glycosidic

linkage
Nucleic Acid Structure
Nucleic acids show polarity and are always
written in the 5 to 3 direction
Nucleic Acid Structure
What doe this
photograph represent?
Nucleic Acid Structure
What are the major features of the double helix of
DNA?
Two chains coiled around common axis running

in opposite directions
Bases on inside, sugar-phosphate on outside

Bases are 3.4 apart

Structure repeats ever 34

Diameter = 20
Nucleic Acid Structure
Base pairing exists
A with T

C with G

How did the work

of Chargaff support
this concept?
DNA Replication
DNA is said to
replicate
semiconservatively.
What does this mean?
How did Meselson
and Stahl demonstrate
this to be true?
DNA
How can the helical structure be disrupted?
Heating

What is Tm?
Melting temperature half helical structure is

destroyed
What is hyperchromism?
Single stranded DNA absorbs UV light more

effectively than double stranded DNA

DNA
DNA
DNA
Why is the ability to separate the two chains
of the double helix and reassociate them an
important tool in the laboratory?
hybridization experiments
DNA
What is the difference between linear DNA
and circular DNA and where are each of
these forms found?
circular ends of molecule are linked

linear human DNA

circular bacterial DNA

DNA
What is supercoiled DNA?
Nucleic Acid Structures
What are stem-loop structures?
Nucleic Acid Structures
Other complex
structures of single-
stranded nucleic acids
form
Nucleic Acid Structures
In some complex structures can get
hydrogen bonds formed between non-
standard base pairs
Nucleic Acid Structures
1. DNA directs the machinery of a cell to make specific
proteins,
proteins and, therefore, DNA indirectly controls all of the
functioning of all living things.
2. DNA stores the hereditary information of an individual
3. DNA has the ability to mutate (change). This allows for
new characteristics and abilities to appear which may help
an individual to survive and reproduce (EVOLUTION).
EVOLUTION
4. Self replication: DNA has the ability to
make copies of itself
1. DNA replication is called semi-conservative.
semi-conservative
2. Semi-conservative replication is the process in which the
original strands of DNA remain intact and act as
templates for the synthesis of duplicate strands of DNA.
3. One copy of a DNA molecule will split apart to make two
complete copies of itself. Each new DNA molecule is
made up of half of the old molecule and half of a new
molecule.

ANIMATION:
http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/animations/DNA%20
Replication%20-%20long%20.html
1. UNZIPPING:
UNZIPPING The DNA molecule Unzips
as the hydrogen bonds between the base
pairs are broken.
broken The enzyme
HELICASE causes this unzipping to occur.
2. COMPLEMENTARY
BASE PAIRING:
PAIRING
Complementary
nucleotides move into
position to bond with the
complementary bases on
the DNA chain.
3. FORM NEW SUGAR PHOSPHATE BACKBONE: BACKBONE The
nucleotides join as the sugars and phosphates bond to
form a new backbone. This process occurs due to the
enzyme DNA POLYMERASE which also checks for
mistakes as it goes.
4. This process continues along the primary chain until we
have 2 IDENTICAL STRANDS of DNA molecules
(assuming there have been no errors made).
Start at Part 2 and skip to Part 5 (end):
http://207.207.4.198/pub/flash/24/24.html
DNA Replication
What is DNA polymerase?
enzyme that catalyzes addition of DNA nucleotides

to a growing chain of DNA

(DNA) + dNTP (DNA)n+1 + PPi
n

What besides the enzyme is needed for DNA synthesis?

template

primer

activated nucleotides
DNA Replication
What is the nature of the reaction catalyzed by
DNA polymerase?
DNA Replication
What else can some DNA polymerases do?
remove mismatched nucleotides
RNA Viruses
What is the difference between and RNA
virus and a retrovirus?
RNA viruses replicate via an RNA

directed RNA polymerase

retroviruses use reverse transcriptase to

replicate
Examples of each?
Replication of Retrovirus
Gene Expression
How does RNA facilitate gene expression?
m-RNA carries information from DNA

t-RNA carries amino acids to site of

protein synthesis
r-RNA major component of ribosome

where proteins are made

snRNA (in eucaryotes only) splices

RNA
1) Mutations can occur
naturally or through
environmental factors.

Environmental mutagens
include some chemicals
(food additives, pesticides,
plastics) and radiations
(X-rays to UV light).
2) A gene mutation is a change of one or more
nucleotides in a single gene. There are 3 types.

a) Addition
b) Deletion
c) Substitution
 GENE MUTATIONS
Deletion:
Deletion one nucleotide base is left out. All of the amino
acids after a deletion will be wrong, so SHAPE and FUNCTION of
protein are altered. Serious.

Addition:
Addition one extra nucleotide base is added. This will also
change the entire amino acid sequence of the protein, so SHAPE
and FUNCTION of protein are altered. Serious.
Substitution:
Substitution when single bases or short pieces are
replaced with one another.
Example: Sickle-Cell Anemia, only one nucleotide base is
switched. This causes only 1 amino acid to change, but it is an
important one.
This type of mutation is usually not as serious as the 1st two.
It just depends on which amino acid is affected (does it have an
R group with a +,-, or S group?)
3. Chromosomal mutations:
mutations a mutation of all
or part of a chromosome. These affect many
genes.
genes
Example #1: crossing
over where one part of
a chromosome changes
places with another.
This can cause extra
pieces, missing pieces,
or the exchange of
pieces of chromosomes.
 Cri du Chat Syndrome
("Cry of the cat" in French) is a genetic
disorder caused by the loss or
misplacement of genetic material
from the 5th chromosome.

It was first identified in 1963 by

Professor Lejeune. He described the
syndrome after the sound that many of
the babies and young children make
Charlotte has Cri du when crying.
Chat syndrome.

Cri du Chat causes a varied level of

mental handicap. The majority of the
children need more specialized
education.
Example #2:
non-disjunction =
extra chromosomes or
missing chromosomes
due to mistakes made
during meiosis.
Down Syndrome occurs in approx. 1 in 700 births in Canada. A
person with Down Syndrome has 47 chromosomes in each cell
instead of 46. The chance of having a baby with Down Syndrome
increases significantly with age; for example, between 20 and 24
years of age, the chance of conceiving a child with Down syndrome
is 1 in 1,450, while at age 45 this probability increases to 1 in 32.
WHAT IS KLINEFELTER SYNDROME? Discovered in
1942 by Dr. Harry Klinefelter. He studied 9 men who
had enlarged breasts, sparse facial and body hair, small
testes, and an inability to produce sperm.
By the late 1950s, it was discovered that men with
Klinefelter syndrome, had an extra sex chromosome,
XXY instead of the usual male arrangement, XY.
WHAT IS TURNERS SYNDROME? A disorder that
results from a non-disjunction of the X
chromosomes during meiosis = X0 instead of
XX. Individuals are short and stocky; also
sterile.