Sensor Technologies

Phase Linearity

Describe how well a system preserves the

phase relationship between frequency
components of the input
Phase linearity: =kf
Distortion of signal
Amplitude linearity
Phase linearity
 Sensor Technology - Terminology

Transducer is a device which transforms energy

from one type to another, even if both energy
types are in the same domain.
Typical energy domains are mechanical, electrical,
chemical, magnetic, optical and thermal.
Transducer can be further divided into Sensors,
which monitors a system and Actuators, which
impose an action on the system.
Sensors are devices which monitor a parameter of a
system, hopefully without disturbing that parameter.
 Categorization of Sensor

Classification based on physical phenomena

Mechanical: strain gage, displacement (LVDT), velocity (laser
vibrometer), accelerometer, tilt meter, viscometer, pressure, etc.
Thermal: thermal couple
Optical: camera, infrared sensor
Others
Classification based on measuring mechanism
Resistance sensing, capacitance sensing, inductance sensing,
piezoelectricity, etc.
Materials capable of converting of one form of energy to
another are at the heart of many sensors.
Invention of new materials, e.g., smart materials, would permit
the design of new types of sensors.
Paradigm of Sensing System Design

Zhang & Aktan, 2005

 Instrumentation Considerations

Sensor technology;
Sensor data collection topologies;
Data communication;
Power supply;
Data synchronization;
Environmental parameters and influence;
Remote data analysis.
 Measurement

Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output

Measurement output:
interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding
the sensor
compound response of multiple inputs

Measurement errors:
System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and
the approximation, can be corrected by calibration
Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be
reduced by averaging.
 Sensors

Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable of a

physical system or an environment

Classification of Sensors
Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain, rotation
velocity, acceleration, pressure, force/torque, twisting,
weight, flow
Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage, current,
frequency phase; visual/images, light; magnetism.
Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value
 Specifications of Sensor

Accuracy: error between the result of a

measurement and the true value being
measured.
Resolution: the smallest increment of measure
that a device can make.
Sensitivity: the ratio between the change in the
output signal to a small change in input physical
signal. Slope of the input-output fit line.
Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the
sensor to output the same value for the same
input over a number of trials
Accuracy vs. Resolution

True value

measurement
 Accuracy vs. Precision

Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy
 Specifications of Sensor
Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable input
amplitude to minimum input amplitude, i.e. D.R. = 20 log
(Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.) dB
Linearity: the deviation of the output from a best-fit straight
line for a given range of the sensor
Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The
relationship between physical input signal and electrical
output signal, which may constitute a complete description
of the sensor characteristics.
Bandwidth: the frequency range between the lower and
upper cutoff frequencies, within which the sensor transfer
function is constant gain or linear.
Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that causes
random fluctuation in the output value
 Attributes of Sensors

Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors

function, such as electro-optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity,
active and passive ultraviolet.
Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical
variables.
Size: The physical volume of sensors.
Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or
discrete/analog or digital.
Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-
making.
Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just
receiving signals.
Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in
environment.
Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough for its
operation conditions
 Strain Gauges

Foil strain gauge

Least expensive
Widely used
Not suitable for long distance
Electromagnetic Interference
Sensitive to moisture & humidity

Vibration wire strain gauge

Determine strain from freq. of AC signal
Bulky

Fiber optic gauge

Immune to EM and electrostatic noise
Compact size
High cost
Fragile
 Strain Sensing

Resistive Foil Strain Gage

Technology well developed; Low cost
High response speed & broad frequency
bandwidth
A wide assortment of foil strain gages
commercially available
Subject to electromagnetic (EM) noise,
interference, offset drift in signal.
Long-term performance of adhesives used for
bonding strain gages is questionable
Vibrating wire strain gages can NOT be
used for dynamic application because of
their low response speed.
Optical fiber strain sensor
 Strain Sensing

Piezoelectric Strain Sensor

Piezoelectric ceramic-based or Piezoelectric polymer-based (e.g.,
PVDF)
Very high resolution (able to measure nanostrain)
Excellent performance in ultrasonic frequency range, very high
frequency bandwidth; therefore very popular in ultrasonic applications,
such as measuring signals due to surface wave propagation
When used for measuring plane strain, can not distinguish the strain in
X, Y direction
Piezoelectric ceramic is a brittle material (can not measure large
deformation)

Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

 Acceleration Sensing

Piezoelectric accelerometer
Nonzero lower cutoff frequency (0.1 1 Hz for 5%)
Light, compact size (miniature accelerometer weighing
0.7 g is available)
Measurement range up to +/- 500 g
Less expensive than capacitive accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 5 100 mv/g
Broad frequency bandwidth (typically 0.2 5 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 150 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

 Acceleration Sensing

Capacitive accelerometer
Good performance over low frequency range, can measure
gravity!
Heavier (~ 100 g) and bigger size than piezoelectric
accelerometer
Measurement range up to +/- 200 g
More expensive than piezoelectric accelerometer
Sensitivity typically from 10 1000 mV/g
Frequency bandwidth typically from 0 to 800 Hz
Operating temperature: -65 120 C

Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Accelerometer
 Force Sensing

Metal foil strain-gage based (load cell)

Good in low frequency response
High load rating
Resolution lower than piezoelectricity-based
Rugged, typically big size, heavy weight

Courtesy of Davidson Measurement

 Force Sensing

Piezoelectricity based (force sensor)

lower cutoff frequency at 0.01 Hz
can NOT be used for static load measurement
Good in high frequency
High resolution
Limited operating temperature (can not be used for high
temperature applications)
Compact size, light

Courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

 Displacement Sensing

LVDT (Linear Variable Differential

Transformer):
Inductance-based ctromechanical sensor
Infinite resolution
limited by external electronics
Limited frequency bandwidth (250 Hz
typical for DC-LVDT, 500 Hz for AC-LVDT)
No contact between the moving core and
coil structure Photo courtesy of MSI
no friction, no wear, very long operating
lifetime
Accuracy limited mostly by linearity
0.1%-1% typical
Models with strokes from mms to 1 m
available
 Displacement Sensing

Linear Potentiometer
Resolution (infinite), depends on?
High frequency bandwidth (> 10 kHz)
Fast response speed
Velocity (up to 2.5 m/s) Photo courtesy of Duncan Electronics

Low cost
Finite operating life (2 million cycles) due to contact
wear
Accuracy: +/- 0.01 % - 3 % FSO
Operating temperature: -55 ~ 125 C
 Displacement Transducer

Magnetostrictive Linear Displacement Transducer

Exceptional performance for long stroke position measurement
up to 3 m
Operation is based on accurately measuring the distance from a
predetermined point to a magnetic field produced by a movable
permanent magnet.
Repeatability up to 0.002% of the measurement range.
Resolution up to 0.002% of full scale range (FSR)
Relatively low frequency bandwidth (-3dB at 100 Hz)
Very expensive
Operating temperature: 0 70 C

Photo courtesy of Schaevitz

 Displacement Sensing

Differential Variable Reluctance Transducers

Relatively short stroke
High resolution
Non-contact between the measured object and sensor
Standard
Type of Construction
tubular
by 8mm
Fixing Mode
diameter

Total Measuring Range 2(+/-1)mm

Pneumatic Retraction No
Repeatability 0.1um Courtesy of Microstrain, Inc.

Operating -10 to +65

Temperature Limits degrees C
 Velocity Sensing

Scanning Laser Vibrometry

No physical contact with the test object; facilitate remote,
mass-loading-free vibration measurements on targets
measuring velocity (translational or angular)
automated scanning measurements with fast scanning speed
However, very expensive (> $120K)

Photo courtesy of Bruel & Kjaer

Photo courtesy of Polytec

 Laser Vibrometry

References
Structural health monitoring using scanning laser
vibrometry, by L. Mallet, Smart Materials & Structures,
vol. 13, 2004, pg. 261
the technical note entitled Principle of Vibrometry from
Polytec
 Shock (high-G) Sensing

Shock Pressure Sensor

Measurement range up to 69 MPa (10 ksi)
High response speed (rise time < 2 sec.)
High frequency bandwidth (resonant
frequency up to > 500 kHz)
Operating temperature: -70 to 130 C
Light (typically weighs ~ 10 g)
Photo courtesy of PCB Piezotronics

Shock Accelerometer
Measurement range up to +/- 70,000 g
Frequency bandwidth typically from 0.5
30 kHz at -3 dB
Operating temperature: -40 to 80 C
Light (weighs ~ 5 g)
 Angular Motion Sensing (Tilt Meter)

Inertial Gyroscope (e.g., http://www.xbow.com)

used to measure angular rates and X, Y, and Z acceleration.

Tilt Sensor/Inclinometer (e.g., http://www.microstrain.com)

Tilt sensors and inclinometers generate an artificial horizon and
measure angular tilt with respect to this horizon.

Rotary Position Sensor (e.g., http://www.msiusa.com)

includes potentiometers and a variety of magnetic and capacitive
technologies. Sensors are designed for angular displacement less
than one turn or for multi-turn displacement.
Photo courtesy of MSI and Crossbow
 MEMS Technology

What is MEMS?
Acronym for Microelectromechanical Systems
MEMS is the name given to the practice of making and
combining miniaturized mechanical and electrical components.
K. Gabriel, SciAm, Sept 1995.
Synonym to:
Micromachines (in Japan)
Microsystems technology (in Europe)

Leverage on existing IC-based fabrication techniques (but now

extend to other non IC techniques)
Potential for low cost through batch fabrication
Thousands of MEMS devices (scale from ~ 0.2 m to 1 mm)
could be made simultaneously on a single silicon wafer
 MEMS Technology

Co-location of sensing,
computing, actuating, control,
communication & power on a
small chip-size device
High spatial functionality and fast
response speed
Very high precision in manufacture
miniaturized components improve
response speed and reduce power
consumption
MEMS Fabrication Technique

Courtesy of A.P. Pisano, DARPA

 Distinctive Features of MEMS Devices

Miniaturization
micromachines (sensors and actuators) can handle
microobjects and move freely in small spaces
Multiplicity
cooperative work from many small micromachines
may be best way to perform a large task
inexpensive to make many machines in parallel
Microelectronics
integrate microelectronic control devices with sensors
and actuators Fujita, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 86, No 8
 MEMS Accelerometer

Capacitive MEMS
accelerometer
High precision dual axis
accelerometer with signal
conditioned voltage outputs, all
on a single monolithic IC
Sensitivity from 20 to 1000
mV/g
High accuracy
High temperature stability
Low power (less than 700 uA
typical)
5 mm x 5 mm x 2 mm LCC
package
Low cost ($5 ~ $14/pc. in Yr.
2004)
Courtesy of Analog Devices, Inc.
 MEMS Accelerometer
Piezoresistive MEMS accelerometer
Operating Principle: a proof mass attached to a silicon
housing through a short flexural element. The implantation of
a piezoresistive material on the upper surface of the flexural
element. The strain experienced by a piezoresistive material
causes a position change of its internal atoms, resulting in the
change of its electrical resistance
low-noise property at high frequencies

Courtesy of JP Lynch, U Mich.

 MEMS Dust
MEMS dust here has the same scale as a single
dandelion seed - something so small and light
that it literally floats in the air.

Source: Distributed MEMS: New Challenges for Computation, by

A.A. BERLIN and K.J. GABRIEL, IEEE Comp. Sci. Eng., 1997
 Sensing System

Reference
Zhang, R. and Aktan, E., Design consideration for sensing
systems to ensure data quality, Sensing issues in Civil
Structural Health Monitoring, Eded by Ansari, F., Springer,
2005, P281-290