ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Department of Physics

K L University

1
 Session 9

3/22/17 2
 Contents
Free Electron Model

Bloch theorem, Kronig- Penny model, Brillouin Zones

Energy band theory, Band structures in Conductors, Semi conductors and

Insulators
Electrical properties of conductors- Ohms, Mathiessen rule, conductivity,
Mobility
Electrical properties of Semi conductors, Factors effecting the carrier
concentration, Conductivity and Mobility of charge carriers
Electric properties of Insulator-Dielectrics- Types of Dielectrics, Dielectric
Constant, Polarization, Types of Polarizations, Frequency Dependence of
Polarization, Ferro, Piezo Electrics.
 Free Electron Model
To explain the structure and properties of solid

To explain bondings in solids

behavior of conductors, semiconductors and insulators

electrical and thermal conductivities of solids

magnetism, elasticity, through their electronic structure

Development of Free Electron Theory:

1. The classical free electron theory (Drude and Lorentz Model)

2. The quantum free electron theory (Sommerfeld Model)

3. Band Theory (Brillouin Zone Theory)

 The Classical Free Electron Theory
Assumptions:

1. The valance electrons (electron gas) are free to

move

2. Electrons suffer collisions

3. All these collisions are ELASTIC
 Assumptions (Cont.)

4. Obey classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of

velocities

Root mean square velocity of electron is

Vrms = (3KBT/m)1/2

5. As Vrms is RANDOM, it does not contribute to any

current
 The Classical Free Electron Theory
(Cont.)
Independent electron approximation

In the absence of external fields, random motion of

electrons is observed.

In the presence of external fields, DRIFT VELOCITY

(Vd) is observed

Trajectory of a conduction electron

 The Classical Free Electron Theory
(Cont.)
RELAXATION TIME ():

Time taken for drift velocity to decay (1/e) of its initial

value

MEAN COLLISION TIME (c):

Mean time between successive collisions

MEAN FREE PATH ():

Average distance travelled by an electron between two

successive collisions

= Vrms . c.
Success of Classical Free Electron Theory

1. Explains the concept of resistance in metals

2. Verifies Ohms law

3. High electrical and thermal conductivity of

metals
4. Wiedemann Franz law

5. Explains optical properties of metals

 Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron
Theory
Classical theory failed to explain:

Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and black body

radiation, etc.
Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
Specific heat capacity of solids

The concept of ferromagnetism

Paramagnetic susceptibility
 Quantum Free Electron Theory
Assumptions:

Sommerfeld retained the concept of free electrons

Free Electrons in a metal experiences uniform

potential.
Electrons obeying laws of quantum mechanics

Electron trapped in a potential well

Distribution functions to expalin Energy levels

Fermi-Dirac statistics
Schrdinger Time Dependent Wave Equation
The Schrdinger time dependent wave equation is

2
V i
2

2m t
2
2
V i
2m t

or H E
2 2
where H = 2m V , Hamiltonian operator

E = i , Energy operator
t
 Success of Quantum Free Electron Theory
1. Much larger predicted quantities than the actual quantities, that
were predicted based on the assumptions of classical free electron
theory have been reduced to lower quantities.

2. According to quantum mechanics only one percent of the free

electrons can absorb energy.

3. Specific heat and paramagnetic susceptibility values are in much

better agreement with experimental values.

4. Both experimental and theoretical values of Lorentz number are

in good agreement.
Drawbacks of Quantum Free Electron Theory

1. Why some crystals have metallic properties and others

do not have

2. Why the atomic arrays in crystals including metals

prefer certain structures and not others
Session 10
 Kronig-Penney Model

V(x) = 0, for 0 < x < a (potential well)

V(x) = V0, for b < x < 0 (potential barrier)
(P/a) sin a + cos a = cos ka

Where, P = mV0ba/2 is called scattering power of the potential barrier

V0b = barrier strength

Band Theory of Solids

In isolated atoms the

electrons are arranged
in energy levels
 Conductors, Insulators, and
Semiconductors
Consider the available energies for electrons in the materials.

Instead of having discrete

Electrons must occupy different
energies, the available energy
energies due to Pauli Exclusion
states form bands.
principle.
 In solids the outer electron energy levels become
smeared out to form bands

The highest occupied band is called the VALENCE band

This is full

For conduction of electrical energy there must be

electrons in the conduction band

Electrons are free to move

Insulators : Large energy gap between the valence and
conduction band

Examples are plastics, paper

Conductors : There is an overlap between the valence and

conduction band

Examples are copper, lead

Semiconductors : There is a small energy gap between the

two bands

Examples are silicon, germanium

 Session 11

3/22/17 26
Electrical conductivity ()
 Electrical conductivity ()

The ability of a substance to conduct an electric current

Units: (.m)-1 (or) mho/m (or) S/m

Inverse of the resistivity ()

Metals: > 105 (.m)-1

Semiconductors: 10-6< < 105 (.m)-1

Insulators: 10-6 (.m)-1<<10-20(.m)-1

 Electrical Conductivity in Metals
One of the best materials for electrical conduction is silver
but its use is restricted due to the high cost
Most widely used conductor is copper
inexpensive, abundant, high
 Ohms law
The voltage applied to a conductor which is equal to the product of current

passing through the conductor times its resistance

V= IR (Macroscopic form)

Ohms law in this form is independent of size and shape of the conductor under

consideration

However, it can also be expressed in terms of current density J and electric field

J = E (Microscopic form)

It follows that the electric current density is proportional to the applied electric

field

Where, proportionality constant is called electrical conductivity

 Matthiessens rule
The resistivity is defined by scattering events due to the

imperfections and thermal vibrations

Total resistivity tot can be described by the Matthiessens rule:

Where

thermal - resistivity due to thermal vibrations

impurity - due to impurities

deformation - due to deformation-induced defects

Resistivity increases with temperature, with deformation, and with

alloying
Graphical verification of Mathiessens rule
 Drift velocity of electrons (vd)

I v
Random motion of electrons d

In the absence of external field

E

Directed motion of electrons

In the presence of external field

 Drift velocity of electrons (vd)
When an electric field E is applied to a conductor, the
electrons modify their random motion and move with an
average drift velocity vd in a direction opposite to that of the
electric field

vd =
The drift velocity is proportional to applied electric field and
the proportionality constant is called the electron mobility
 Electron Mobility ()

The electron mobility is defined as the drift velocity vd per unit

applied electric field E.

Substituting the value of drift velocity in the above equation we

get

The above equation shows that mobility of an electron depends

on the relaxation time and hence it depends on temperature

Relation between mobility and conductivity

The conductivity of a metal is expressed as

= nee
where,
n is the number of free electrons per unit volume

e is the absolute magnitude of the electrical charge

on an electron
e is electron mobility
 Session 12

3/22/17 37
 Semiconductors
Conductivity lies between that of conductors and

insulators

The electrical properties of semiconductors are

extremely sensitive to the presence of even minute

concentrations of impurities

Classification:

Intrinsic: Materials in their pure form

Extrinsic: Materials doped with impure atoms

 Semiconducting materials for devices
Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) is commonly used
compound, especially in the case of LEDs because of
its large band gap
Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,
having 4 valence electrons
Their structure allows them to grow in a shape called
the diamond lattice
 Semiconducting materials for devices

Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5

element
When put together as a compound, GaAs creates a zincblend lattice
structure

In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each atom

shares its valence electrons with its four closest neighbors
When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to
Si, Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of the material
To make the P- and N-type materials that become the diode
 Semiconducting materials for devices

The light green lines represent the

Si
+4
Si
+4
Si
+4 electronic bonds made when the
valence electrons are shared
Si
+4
Si
+4
Si
+4
Each Si atom shares one electron
with each of its four closest neighbors
Si
+4
Si
+4
Si
+4
Its valence band will have a full 8
electrons.

2D structure of the Si crystal

 N-type material
When extra valence electrons are
introduced
By including impurities or dopants
+4 +4 +4
into the silicon
The dopants used are Group V
+4 +5 +4
elements
+4 +4 +4 Arsenic, Antimony and Phosphorus
Extra electron that will be present
when a Group V dopant is introduced
Extra electron is very mobile.
 The Phosphorus atom
Phosphorus is
number 15 in the
periodic table

It has 15 protons and

15 electrons 5 of
these electrons are in
its outer shell
 This crystal has been doped with a pentavalent impurity

The free electrons in n type silicon support the flow of current

 P-type material
P-type material is produced when the
dopant that is introduced is from Group III.
Group III elements have only 3 valence
+4 +4 +4
electrons
+4 +3 +4 This creates a hole (h+)
Aluminum, Boron, and Gallium.
+4 +4 +4
Hole is quite mobile in the same way the
extra electron is mobile in a n-type
material.
 The Boron atom
Boron is number 5 in the
periodic table

It has 5 protons and 5

electrons 3 of these
electrons are in its outer
shell
Extrinsic conduction p-type silicon
This crystal has been doped with a trivalent impurity

The holes in p type silicon contribute to the current

Note that the hole current direction is opposite to electron current
so the electrical current is in the same direction
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
Group IV elements (C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Fl)

Relatively narrow forbidden band gap, generally less than 2 eV

Si (1.1 eV) and Ge (0.7 eV)

At 0 K, valence band is completely filled, conduction band is empty

Equal carrier concentration ni = n = p

The magnitude of hole mobility is always less than electron

mobility for semiconductors

Conductivity is given by = nee+peh = nie(e+h)

 Electron bonding in intrinsic silicon

Before excitation After excitation

 Extrinsic Semiconductors
All commercial semiconductors are extrinsic

Impurity concentration of one atom in 1012

n-type are obtained by adding impure atoms of group V (P,As,

Sb)

Donor atoms

Conductivity is mainly due to free electrons

= nee

At room temperature, the thermal energy available is sufficient

to excite large numbers of electrons from donor states

 Extrinsic Semiconductors
p-type semiconductors are obtained by adding impure

atoms of group III (B, Al, Ga)

Acceptor atoms

Conductivity is mainly due to free holes

= peh

Energy level within the band gap introduced by this

type of impurity is called an acceptor state

Band diagram of semiconductors
n-type semiconductors
Band diagram of semiconductors
p-type semiconductors
 Role of temperature in conductivity
In extrinsic semiconductors, large numbers of charge

carriers are created at room temperature

Relatively high room-temperature electrical

conductivities are obtained

Most of these materials are designed for use in

electronic devices to be operated at ambient conditions

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
 Factors effecting conductivity
Influence of Dopant Content:

Both the axes are scaled

logarithmically

At dopant concentrations less

than about 1020 m-3, mobilities

are at their maximum levels
and independent of the doping
concentration
Both mobilities decrease with
Fig. Electron and hole mobilities in
silicon as a function of dopant
concentration (at room temperature)

increasing impurity content

 Factors effecting conductivity
Influence of Temperature:

Both the axes are scaled logarithmically

For dopant concentrations of 1024 m-3, and below, both mobilities decrease

in magnitude with rising temperature

It is due to enhanced thermal scattering of the carriers

For both electrons and holes, and dopant levels less than 1020 m-3, the

dependence of mobility on temperature is independent of acceptor/donor

concentration

For concentrations greater than 1020 m-3, curves in are shifted to

progressively lower mobility values with increasing dopant level

Influence of temperature
 Conductivity and mobility of charge
carriers in semi-conductors
Intrinsic semiconductors: Extrinsic semiconductors:

Equal carrier concentration Conductivity is mainly due to free

(electron and hole) electrons in n-type semiconductors

ni = n = p n >> p

The magnitude of hole mobility is = nee

always less than electron Conductivity is mainly due to free

mobility for semiconductors holes in p-type semiconductors
Conductivity is given by p >> n

= nee+peh = nie(e+h) = peh

 Session 13

3/22/17 63
 Energy band diagram
The magnitude of the band

gap is the key parameter to

understand the electrical

properties of insulators,

semiconductors and metals

Even very high electric fields is also unable to

promote electrons across the band gap in an insulator

 Introduction to insulators
Internal electric charges do not flow freely

Not possible to conduct an electric current

Higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors

Contain small numbers of mobile charges

Electrically conductive when a sufficiently large

voltage is applied, known as the breakdown voltage

Ex: glass, paper and teflon

Conductivity of various insulators
 Various insulators
Many polymers and ionic
Material Electrical Conductivity
ceramics at room temperature (-m)-1

Filled valance band and empty

Ceramics
conduction band Dry concrete 10-9

Relatively large band gap, (more Soda lime glass 10-10 10-11
Borosilicate glass 10-13
than 2 eV)
Fused silica 10-18
At room temperature, only very Polymers
few electrons may be excited Nylon 6,6 10-12 10-13

across the band gap Polystyrene < 10-14

Polyethylene 10-15 10-17
Very small values of conductivity
Polytetrafluoroethylene < 10-17
 Properties of insulators
Used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of current
to the earth from its supporting points
Insulator is a very high resistive path through which
practically no current can flow
In transmission and distribution system, there must be
insulator between tower and current carrying conductors to
prevent the flow of current
 Properties of insulators cont.
1. Mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors

2. Very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High

Voltage system

3. Must be free from unwanted impurities

4. It should not be porous

5. Entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the moisture or

gases can enter in it

6. Physical as well as electrical properties must be less affected by

changing temperature
 Dielectrics Vs insulators
The insulating materials are used to resist the flow of current through it,
when a potential difference is applied across its ends
The distinction between a dielectric material and an insulator lies in the
application
For instance, vacuum is an insulator but it is not dielectric

The insulators which can be polarized by applying the external electric field
can be called as dielectrics.
All dielectric materials are electrical insulators but all electric insulators need
not be dielectrics
 Introduction to dielectrics
High electrical resistivities

Can store energy or charge

No free electrons

Band gap larger than 3 eV

No excitation of electron from valance band to conduction band

with normal voltage or thermal energy

A steady flow of electrons cannot flow through it

Net separation of positive and negative charges is observed at

molecular or atomic level when external electric field is applied.

 Types of dielectrics
Polar Dielectrics: dielectrics in which centers of the positive as well as
negative charges do not coincide with each other
Ex: NH3, HCl, H2O

They are of asymmetric shape

 Types of dielectrics cont.
Non Polar dielectrics: dielectrics in which the centers of both
positive as well as negative charges coincide with each other
Ex: methane, benzene, CO2 etc.
Molecules of this category are symmetric in nature
 Dielectric materials in capacitors
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
Q = charge stored on each either plate
V = applied potential

Capacitor with vacuum Capacitor with dielectric

A is area of the plates, separated by a distance l

permittivity of vacuum, 0 = 8.85x10-12 Fm-1 = permittivity of dielectric medium

> 0, represents the increase in charge storing capacity

by insertion of the dielectric medium between the plates
Electric dipole: An electric dipole generated by two
equal and opposite electric charges, each of
magnitude q, separated by the distance d.

Electric dipole moment = q.d

dipole
+ _
Electric field _
+
+ _
-q + _ _
+q +
d +
Electric dipole
_
+ _
+ _
+ _
Dielectric atom
 Fundamental definitions

Dielectric constant (r):

The ratio between the permittivity of the medium

to the permittivity of free space r = / 0

The characteristics of a dielectric material are

determined by the dielectric constant
No units
Measure of polarization in the dielectric material
 Electric polarization
When a dielectric material is placed inside an electric field,
net separation of positive and negative charges is
observed
which is called a dipole

The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called

polarization
In the presence of an electric field, the dipoles experience a force to orient
in the field direction. This process of dipole alignment is termed polarization
 Polarization vector
Electric dipole moment of an electric dipole generated by two equal and

opposite electric charges, each of magnitude q, separated by the distance d

is given by

= qd

The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called

polarization vector

P = N

where, is the average dipole moment per molecule,

N is the no. of molecules per unit volume

 Polarizability
The induced dipole moment per unit electric field is called

Polarizability

The induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity

of the electric field

E

=E

is the constant of proportionality, called the polarizibility

Therefore, Polarization vector, P = N =P

NE

or NE
 Electric flux Density
Electric flux density (D) is defined as charge per unit area and it has same units of

dielectric polarization (P).

Electric flux density D at a point in a free space or air in terms of electric field strength

is
D0 = 0 E

At the same point in a medium is given by

D=E

As the polarization measures the additional flux density arising from the presence of

material as compared to free space

i.e, D = 0 E + P

D = E = 0 E + P

( - 0) E = P (or ) (r.0 - 0) E = P

(r1) 0 . E = P

where (r1) = e is called the electric susceptibility of the medium.

 Electric susceptibility
The polarization vector P is proportional to the total

electric flux density and direction of electric field.

Therefore the polarization vector can be written

P = 0 e E

e = P / 0 E

= 0 (r1 ) E / 0 E

e = (r1)
 Dielectric Strength
The ability of that material to withstand voltage differences

When very high electric fields (>108 V/m) are applied, large

numbers of electrons may suddenly be excited to higher energy

levels

As a result, the current increases dramatically

When the voltage exceeds the breakdown potential, it begins to

conduct

Real-life dielectrics enable a capacitor provide a given

capacitance and hold the required voltage without breaking down

 Electric polarization
The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field
is called polarization in dielectrics
The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material
is called polarization vector

P=N

where, is the average dipole moment per molecule,

N is the no. of molecules per unit volume

 Various Polarization Processes
When the specimen is placed inside a d.c. electric
field, polarization occurs due to four types of
processes..

1.Electronic Polarization

2.Ionic Polarization

3.Orientation Polarization

4. Space Charge Polarization

 Electronic Polarization
When an electric field is applied to an atom, nucleus displaces in

the direction of field and electron could in opposite direction

Electric dipole with in the atom.

i.e, dipole moment is proportional to the magnitude of field

strength and is given by

e E or

e= eE

where e is called electronic Polarizability constant

 Electronic polarization cont.
If we assume in a monoatomic atom like Cl, +Ze charge is surrounded by
an electron cloud of charge Ze with a radius of sphere R, then the
electronic polarizibility e is given by

e 4 0 R 3
where 0 is the permittivity of free space.

It increases with increase of volume of the atom

This kind of polarization is mostly exhibited in monoatomic gases

It is extremely rapid and occurs at all frequencies ranging from power
frequencies (< 100 Hz) to optical (UV/VIS) frequencies (10 15Hz)
It is independent of temperature
 Ionic Polarization
When atoms form molecules, ionic polarization occurs mainly due to a

relative displacement of the atomic components of the molecule in the

presence of an electric field.

In a molecule, the positive ions displaced by X1 to the negative side of

electric field

Negative ions displaced by X2 to the positive side of field

The resultant dipole moment i = e ( X1 + X2)

Ionic polarization occurs in all ionic solids: NaCl, MgO

 Ionic polarization cont.
Restoring force constant depend upon the reduced mass (m*)

and natural frequency (0) of the molecule and is given by

F = eE = m*.w02 x (or)

x = eE / m*.w02, , where x = x1 + x2. Therefore

where M mass of anion and m is mass of cation and mM/

(m+M) = m* is called the reduced mass of the molecule.
 Ionic polarization cont.

This polarization occurs up to 1013 Hz (IR) frequencies.

It is a slower process compared to electronic polarization
because ions being heavier than electrons, they take longer
time to undergo displacement.
It is independent of temperature
 Orientation Polarization
Also called dipolar or molecular polarization.

H2 , N2,O2,Cl2 ,CH4,CCl4 etc., non-polar molecules do not carry any

dipoles.

On the other hand, CH3Cl, H2O, HCl, ethyl acetate, etc. (polar

molecules) carry dipoles even in the absence of electric field.

However, the net dipole moment is negligibly small due to random

orientation of these dipoles.

In the presence of the electric field these all dipoles orient themselves

in the direction of field as a result the net dipole moment becomes

enormous.
 Orientational Polarization cont.
It is slow process compare to ionic polarization and occurs up to
microwave frequencies (1010 Hz).
It greatly depends on temperature

Inversely proportional to absolute temperature T.

Expression for orientation polarization:

Po N o o o E
2
o
3 K BT
where is the dipole moment of the polar molecule, and KB is Boltzmanns
constant.
 Space Charge Polarization
Space Charge Polarization occurs due to accumulation of charges at the
electrodes or the interfaces in a multiphase material.
Similar to the case of an electrolyte solution, the ions diffuse over
appreciable distances in response to the applied electric field, giving rise to
redistribution of charges in the dielectric medium.
Since the ions have to move considerable large amount of distances in
Space Charge Polarization, it is the slowest polarization process among all
the four types which occurs only at power frequencies (< 100 Hz) and also
as the space charge polarization (Ps) or the space charge polarizibility (s) is
very small, when compared to the remaining three processes, it can be
neglected.
Hence the total polarizibility (total) and the total polarization (Ptotal) of the
dielectric material can be expressed as
total e i o Ptotal Pe Pi Po
and
 Since = E and P = N = NE, substituting
all the values of e, i, and o, we get

e 2
1 1 2
total 4 0 R 3 2 m M 3K T
0 B

(or)
e 2
1 1 2

Ptotal NE 4 0 R 2
3
3K T
0 m M B

This above equations are called the Langevin Debye

equations for total Polarizibility (total) and total Polarization

vector (Ptotal), respectively, in dielectrics.

Session 14
 Frequency dependence of the dielectric
constant
If a dielectric material that is

subject to polarization by an

ac (alternating current)

electric field

With each direction reversal,

the dipoles attempt to

reorient with the field, in a

process requiring some finite

time
Frequency dependence (graphical)
 Comparison of polarizations
Electronic Ionic Oriantational
Factor
Polarization Polarization Polarization

Electron Cations & Arrangement

Definition cloud shift anions are of random
wrt nucleus shifted dipoles

Alcohol,
Examples Inert gases Ionic crystals
methane

Temperature Independent Independent Dependent

 Ferro electric materials (Ferro electricity)
Exhibit electric polarization even in the absence of electric field, called

Spontaneous Polarization

Analogous to ferromagnetic materials in magnetism

Presence of permanent electric dipoles

Ferro electric crystals possess high dielectric constant

Induced dipole moment in a weak electric field, even in the absence of

applied electric field

Examples:

Barium Titanate (Ba Ti O3), Potasium dihydrogen phosphate(KH2PO4),

Rochelle salt(NaKC4H4O6.4H2O)
 Properties of Ferro electric materials
Easily polarized even for small electric fields

Exhibits dielectric hysteresis

Possess spontaneous polarization

Possess permanent electric dipole

Exhibit domain structure like ferromagnetic material

All ferroelectric materials are piezoelectric but all

piezoelectric are not ferroelectric
 Hysteresis loop
Spontaneous polarization

without external field or stress

Very similar to ferromagnetism

in many aspects:

Alignment of dipoles, domains,

ferroelectric Curie
temperature, paraelectric
above the Curie
temperature....
 Applications of ferroelectric materials

In optical communication, the ferroelectric

crystals are used for optical modulation.
Useful for storing energy in small sized
capacitors in electrical circuits.
In electro acoustic transducers such as
microphone
 Piezoelectric materials (Piezoelectricity)
Creating electric polarization by mechanical stress

Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and vice

versa

According to inverse piezo electric effect, when an electric stress is

applied, the material becomes strained

This strain is directly proportional to the applied field

Examples: quartz crystal , Rochelle salt etc

 Piezoelectricity cont.

The (a) direct and (b) converse piezoelectric effect

In the direct piezoelectric effect (a), applied stress causes a voltage to

appear

In the converse effect (b), an applied voltage leads to development of

strain
Applications of piezoelectric materials
Industry Application

Air bag sensor, air flow sensor, audible alarms, fuel atomiser, keyless door entry, seat
Automotive
belt buzzers, knock sensors.

Computer Disc drives, inkjet printers.

Cigarette lighters, depth finders, fish finders, humidifiers, jewellery cleaners, musical
Consumer
instruments, speakers, telephones.

Medical Disposable patient monitors, foetal heart monitors, ultrasonic imaging.

Military Depth sounders, guidance systems, hydrophones, sonar.

 Engineering applications (Additional)
Role of band theory in explaining photo-excitation and thermal excitation:

Band theory successfully explains the process of photoexcitation, which is the

principle in many devices such as photovoltaic devices, photochemistry,

luminiscence, and optically pumped lasers.

Photo-excitation is the photo-electrochemical process of electron excitation by

photon absorption. This absorption of photon is supported by Planks quantum

theory.

Band theory also successfully explains the process of thermal excitation, which is

a key factor to be considered in fabrication any semiconductor device.

Within a semiconductor crystal lattice, thermal excitation is a process where lattice

vibrations provide enough energy to transfer electrons to a higher energy band.

 Engineering applications
Semiconductor devices:

Transistor is one of the most widely used semiconductor

devices
Primarily used to amplify an electrical signal and also to serve
as switching devices in computers for the processing and
storage of information
 Engineering applications
Semiconductor devices:

In making high speed computer chips, calculators,

telephones and other variety of things like medical

equipments and robotics

Power semiconductor consisting of devices which have

integrated circuits

In manufacturing computers, communication, space

research, medical sciences etc.

 Engineering applications
Applications of dielectrics:

Major application is power line and electrical insulation

Other applications include use in capacitors and transformers, motors and

generators

A number of ceramics and polymers are utilized for this purpose

Many of the ceramics, including glass, porcelain, steatite, and mica, have

dielectric constants within the range of 6 to 10

These materials also exhibit a high degree of dimensional stability and

mechanical strength

Titania (TiO2) and titanate ceramics, such as barium titanate (BaTiO3), having

extremely high dielectric constants, are specially useful for capacitor applications
 Engineering applications
Real time piezoelectric applications:

Piezoelectric materials are mainly utilized in transducers

Transducer is the devices that converts electrical energy into mechanical

strains, or vice versa

other familiar applications that employ piezoelectrics include phonograph

cartridges, microphones, speakers, audible alarms, and ultrasonic imaging

In a phonograph cartridge, a pressure variation is imposed on a piezoelectric

material located in the cartridge, which is then transformed into an electric

signal and is amplified before going to the speaker

Piezoelectric materials include titanates of barium and lead, lead zirconate

ammonium dihydrogen phosphate and quartz

 Review questions on electrical properties
I. Free electron models:

1. List out the postulates of classical free electron theory along with its merits.

2. Discuss the origin of electrical resistance in metals.

3. Define relaxation time, mean free path and establish the relation between them.

4. Explain Wiedemann Franz law and mention its importance.

5. Explain the any two drawbacks of classical free electron theory and explain the

assumptions made in quantum theory to overcome the drawbacks.

6. Compare and contrast the postulates of classical and quantum free electron

theories.

7. Explain the salient features of quantum free electron theory along with its merits

and demerits.
 Review questions on electrical properties
I. Free electron models (cont.):

8. State and explain Blochs theorem along with its significance.

9. Illustrate the periodic potentials described by Kronig-Penney

model and draw conclusions in support of band theory of

solids from the model.

10. Explain the formation of Brillouin zones and list out the

values of k, for which second Brillouin zone exists.

11. Classify materials based on band theory of solids.

 Review questions on electrical properties

II. Conductors:

12.Explain macroscopic and microscopic forms of Ohms law.

13.Explain Matthissens rule with a supporting illustration.

14.Differentiate between random and drift velocity of electron in

metals.

15.Define drift velocity and mobility of electron and also find the
relation between them.

16.Define conductivity and mobility of electron and also find the

relation between them.
 Review questions on electrical properties
III. Semiconductors:

17. Illustrate the band structure of intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors.

18. Explain the key factors effecting carrier concentration.

19. Compare and contrast conductivity and mobility of

charge carriers in intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors.
 Review questions on electrical properties
IV. Insulators and Dielectrics:

20.List out various insulators and compare the band structure of insulators with

semiconductors and conductors.

21.Recall important properties of insulators.

22.Differentiate between insulators and dielectrics.

23.Explain polar and non-polar dielectrics with an example for each type.

24.Explain how dielectric materials can improve the charge storing capacity of a

parallel plate capacitor.

25.Define dielectric constant and dipole moment.

26.Define electric polarization and polarization vector.

27.Define electric flux density (D), electric field strength (E) and polarization vector (P)

and establish relation among D, E and P.

 Review questions on electrical properties
IV. Insulators and Dielectrics (cont.):

28. Define and explain dielectric strength and break down potential of dielectric

materials.

29. Write a brief description of various types of polarization.

30. Explain electronic polarization and write the expression for electronic

polarization.

31. Explain ionic polarization and write the expression for ionic polarization.

32. Explain orientation polarization and write the expression for orientation

polarization.

33. Discuss the frequency dependence of dielectric constant with the help of a

neat diagram.
 Review questions on electrical properties

V. Ferroelectricity and Piezoelectricity:

34. Explain the concept of ferroelectricity along with its key

features.

35. Illustrate the hysteresis of ferroelectric materials along with

their applications.

36. Explain the concept of piezoelectricity with a neat diagram.

37. List out various industrial applications of piezoelectric

materials.
 Problems on electrical properties
1. The resistivity of copper at 200C is 1.69x10-8 -m and the

concentration of free electrons in copper is 8.5x10 28m-3.

Calculate the relaxation time of electrons.

2. The collision time and the root mean square velocity of the

electron at room temperature are 2.5x10-14s and 1x105ms-1

respectively. Calculate the mean free path of the electron.

3. A copper wire of length 0.5m and diameter 0.3mm has a

resistance 0.12 at 200C. If the thermal conductivity of copper

at 200C is 390Wm-1K-1, calculate Lorentz number.

 Problems on electrical properties
4. Compute the electrical resistivity of sodium at 00C, if the mean free time at this

temperature is 3.1x10-14s. Furthermore, sodium builds a BCC lattice with two

atoms per unit cell, and the side of the unit cell is 0.429 nm.

5. For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room-temperature electrical conductivity is

10-6-1m-1 the electron and hole mobilities are, respectively, 0.85 and 0.04m 2/V-

s. Compute the intrinsic carrier concentration ni at room temperature.

6. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor having an area of 6.45x10 -4m2 and a plate

separation of 2x10-3m across which a potential of 10V is applied. If a material

having a dielectric constant of 6.0 is positioned within the region between the

plates, compute the capacitance and the magnitude of the charge stored on

each plate.