Marine Sedimentation

Sediment Defined:
unconsolidated
organic and
inorganic particles
that accumulate on
the ocean floor
originate from
numerous sources
weathering and
erosion of the
continents
volcanic eruptions
biological activity
chemical processes
within the oceanic
crust and seawater
impacts of extra-
terrestrial objects
classified by size
according to the
Wentworth scale
 grain size indicates condition under which sediment is
deposited
high energy environments characteristically yield sediments larger
in size
small particles (silts, clays) indicate low energy environments
considered well-sorted if most particles appear in the
same size classification
poorly sorted sediments comprised of multiple sizes
sediment maturity is indicated by several factors
decreased silt and clay content
increased sorting
increased rounding of grains, as a result of weathering and
abrasion
particle transport is controlled by grain size and velocity
of transporting medium

 4-1 Sediment in the Sea

Average grain
size reflects
the energy of
the
depositional
environment.
Hjulstroms
Diagram
graphs the
relationship
between
particle size
and energy for
erosion,
transportation
and
deposition.
 4-1 Sediment in the Sea
Classificatio
n of marine
sediments
can be
based upon
size
Size or
classification
divides sediment by
origin.
grain size into gravel,
sand and clay.
Mud is a mixture of silt
and clay.
Origin classification
divides sediment into
five categories:
Terrigenous
sediments, Biogenic
sediments, Authigenic
sediments,
Volcanogenic
sediments and
Cosmogenic
sediments.
 Terrigenous (or Lithogenous
Sediments):
derived from weathering of
rocks at or above sea level (e.g.,
continents, islands)
two distinct chemical
compositions
ferromagnesian, or iron-magnesium
bearing minerals
non-ferromagnesian minerals e.g.,
quartz, feldspar, micas
largest deposits on continental
margins (less than 40% reach
abyssal plains)
transported by water, wind,
gravity, and ice
transported as dissolved and
suspended loads in rivers,
waves, longshore currents
 (LANDSAT images
adapted from Geospace
Images catalog).
sediment delivered to
the open-ocean by wind
activity as particulate
matter (dust)
primary dust source is
deserts in Asia and
North Africa
comprise much of the
fine-grained deposits in
remote open-ocean
areas (red clays)
volcanic eruptions
contribute ash to the
atmosphere which
settles within the
oceans
 sediment also
transported to the
open-ocean by gravity-
driven turbidity
currents
dense 'slurries' of
suspended sediment
moved as turbulent
underflows
typically initiated by
storm activity or
earthquakes
first identified during
1929 Grand Banks
earthquake
seismic activity triggered
turbidity current which
severed telegraph lines
initial flow often
confined to submarine
canyons of the
continental shelf and
slope
form deep-sea fans
where the mouth of the
canyon opens onto the
continental rise
20 m s-1 near
Grand
Banks
 boulder to clay size
particles also eroded
and transported to
oceans via glacial ice
glacier termination in
circum-polar oceans
results in calving and
iceberg formation
as ice (or icebergs)
melt, entrained
material is deposited
on the ocean floor
termed 'ice-rafted'
debris
 Biogenous Sediments:
composed primarily of
marine microfossil
remains
shells of one-celled
plants and animals,
skeletal fragments
median grain size
typically less than 0.005
mm (i.e., silt or clay size
particles)
characterized as CaCO3
(calcium carbonate) or
SiO2 (silica) dominated
systems
sediment with biogenic
component less than
30% termed calcareous,
siliceous clay
calcareous or siliceous
'oozes' if biogenic
component greater than
30%
 siliceous oozes
(primarily diatom
oozes) cover ~15%
of the ocean floor
distribution mirrors
regions of high
productivity
common at high
latitudes, and zones of
upwelling
radiolarian oozes more
common in equatorial
regions
 calcareous oozes
(foraminifera,
coccolithophores) cover
~50% of the ocean floor
distribution controlled largely
by dissolution processes
cold, deep waters are
undersaturated with respect
to CaCO3
deep water is slightly acidic
as a result of elevated CO2
concentrations
solubility of CaCO3 also
increases in colder water and
at greater pressures
CaCO3 therefore readily
dissolved at depth
level below which no CaCO3
is preserved is the
'carbonate compensation
depth'
typically occurs at a depth of
3000 to 4000 m

Microfossils in
Paleoclimatology/
Paleoceanography
 Dissolution
Calcium carbonate
dissolves better in
colder water, in acidic
water, and at higher
pressures. In the deep
ocean, all three of these
conditions exist.
Therefore, the
dissolution rate of
calcium carbonate
increases greatly below
the thermocline. This
change in dissolution
rate is called the
lysocline.
Below the lysocline,
more and more calcium
carbonate dissolves,
until eventually, there is
none left. The depth
below which all calcium
carbonate is dissolved is
called the carbonate
compensation depth or
CCD.
 Hydrogenous (or Authigenic) Sediments:
produced by chemical processes in seawater
essentially solid chemical precipitates of several common
forms
non-biogenous carbonates
form in surface waters supersaturated with calcium carbonate
common forms include short aragonite crystals and oolites
phosphorites
phosphate crusts (containing greater than 30% P2O5) occurring
as nodules
formed as large quantities of organic phosphorous settle to the
ocean floor
unoxidized material is transformed to phosphorite deposits
found on continental shelf and upper slope in regions of high
productivity
 manganese
nodules
surficial
deposits of
manganese,
iron, copper,
cobalt, and
nickel
accumulate
only in areas
of low
sedimentation
rate (e.g., the
Pacific)
develop
extremely
slowly (1 to 10
mm/million
years)

 The term evaporites is

used for all deposits, such
as salt deposits, mainly
chemical sediments that
are composed of minerals
that precipitated from
saline solutions
concentrated by
evaporation. Evaporite
deposits are composed
dominantly of varying
proportions of halite (rock
salt) (NaCl), anhydrite
(CaSo4) and gypsum
(CaSo4.2H2O). Evaporites
may be classified as
chlorides, sulfates or
carbonates on the basis of
their chemical composition
(Tucker, 1991).
evaporites ('salt'
deposits')
occur in regions
of enhanced
evaporation
(e.g., marginal
seas)
evaporative
process removes
water and leaves
a salty brine
e.g.,
Mediterranean
'Salinity Crisis'
between 5 and 6
million years
 Cosmogenous
Sediments:
sediments derived
from
extraterrestrial
materials
includes
micrometeorites
and tektites
tektites result from
collisions with
extraterrestrial
materials
fragments of earth's
crust melt and spray
outward from impact
crater
crustal material re-
melts as it falls back
through the
atmosphere
forms 'glassy' tektites
 Distribution of Marine
Sediments:
sediments thickest along
continental margins, thin at
mid-ocean ridges
coastlines
dominated by river-borne and
wave reworked terrigenous
sediments
shelf and slope characterized
by turbidites and authigenic
carbonate deposits
glacial deposits and ice-rafted
debris common at high
latitudes
high input of terrigenous
sediments 'dilutes' biogenous
components
deep-sea (pelagic) basins
abyssal clays (wind blown
deposits) common
lower quantities of biogenic
material
distribution of biogenous
sediments dependent upon
three primary factors
production in surface waters
dissolution in deep waters
dilution by other sediments
types
 high productivity in
zones of upwelling and Nearshore sediments, turbidites:Up to
nutrient-rich high km/my (kilometers/million years)
latitude waters
Hemipelagic deposits: Tens to hundreds
calcareous oozes more
common in warmer or
of m/myDrift deposits40-400 m/my
shallower water Mid-latitude eolian deposits: 3 to 10
siliceous oozes more m/my
common in colder or
deeper water
Ice rafted material: 10+ m/my
terrigenous
Carbonate oozes: Up to 50 m/my
sedimentation rates Siliceous oozes: Up to 10 m/my
range from ~1 mm to Hydrothermal deposits: (off ridge
10's cm/1000 years
axes)About 0.5 m/my
biogenous
sedimentation rates Hydrogenous sediments: Rarely exceed
typically ~1 cm/1000 0.2 m/my
years
Ferromanganese nodules: 0.0002 to
0.005 m/my (0.2 to 5 mm/my)
 4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean
Shelf
sedimentation is
strongly
controlled by
tides, waves and
currents, but
Shoreline turbulence
their influence
prevents small particles
decreases
from with
settling and transports
them seaward where they
depth.
are deposited in deeper
water.
Particle size decreases
seaward for recent
sediments.
Past fluctuations of sea
level has stranded coarse
sediment (relict sediment)
across the shelf including
most areas where only fine
sediments are deposited
today.
 4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean

Geologic controls of continental

shelf sedimentation must be
considered in terms of a time frame.
For a time frame up to 1000 years, waves, currents and
tides control sedimentation.
For a time frame up to 1,000,000 years, sea level lowered
by glaciation controlled sedimentation and caused rivers to
deposit their sediments at the shelf edge and onto the
upper continental slope.
For a time frame up to 100,000,000 years, plate tectonics
has determined the type of margin that developed and
controlled sedimentation.
60% of the
worlds shelves
are covered
with relict
sediments that
were formed
about 15,000 y
BP under a
different energy
regime.
 Gas Methane Hydrates
(Clathrates)
Hydrates store immense
amounts of methane, with
major implications for
energy resources and
climate, but the natural
controls on hydrates and
their impacts on the
environment are very
poorly understood

The worldwide amounts of

carbon bound in gas
hydrates is conservatively
estimated to total twice the
amount of carbon to be
found in all known fossil
fuels on Earth (USGS).

Methane bound in hydrates

amounts to approximately
3,000 times the volume of
methane in the
atmosphere.