Linear Measurement

Introduction
Perpendicular distance between two points or
surfaces

Linear measurement applies to measurement of

length, heights, diameters, thickness, radius etc.
Either line measurement or end measurements
Line measuring instruments consists of series of
accurately spaced marked lines..example-scale
End measuring instruments measures distance
between two end surfaces..example-micrometer
 Classification
Based on methods of measurements
1) Direct measuring instruments
a. graduated instruments. e.g. rules,
vernier callipers, micrometers etc.
b. non-graduated instruments. e.g.
surface gauge, slip gauges etc
2) Indirect measuring instruments
 Classification
Based on accuracy that can be obtained
1) Non precision type instruments. e.g. steel
rule, calliper, divider
2) Precision type instruments. e.g. vernier
calliper, micrometer, slip gauges etc.
 Least Count
Least count is the capability of an
instrument to measure minimum distance
accurately
It represents accuracy of measurement
If we use two scales to measure distance,
one main scale and one auxiliary, the
difference between the value of main
scale division and auxiliary scale division
is called least count
 Steel Rule

steel rule is part replica of the

international prototype meter
 It compares unknown length to
previously calibrated length.
Construction
it is made of hardened steel or
stainless steel
equally spaced lines engraved on it
Marks on good class rule vary from
0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide
 Available sizes
Available in 150, 300, 600, or 1000 mm
lengths

Need not be graduated uniformly

throughout its length
 Desirable qualities
Should be made of good quality steel
Should be machine ground on its faces
and clearly engraved lines should be there
Should have graduations on both edges
Should have minimum thickness
Should be chrome plated to prevent
corrosion and protection against staining
 Precautions while using a steel rule
The ends of the rules are worn out due to
continuous or improper use. It should be
preserved from wear.
The rule should not be used for cleaning
purpose or as a substitute for screw driver
Oliling should be done when not in use
Graduation lines should be as close as
possible to the faces being measured
To avoid parallax error, while making
measurements, eye should be directly
 Callipers

The calliper converts end measurement

situation to the line system of the rule
To measure diameter of a circular part, it is
essential that the measurement is made
along the largest distance or true diameter
The steel rule alone is not a convenient
method
 The calliper consists of two legs hinged a
top and the ends of legs span the part to
be measured
The legs of the calliper are made from
carbon and alloy steel, exactly identical in
shape
The ends are suitably hardened and
tempered
 Types of callipers
Firm joint callipers
Firm joint callipers work on the friction created
at the junction of legs
They can be designed for outside as well as
inside measurements
The firm joint callipers are available in the
nominal sizes of 100,150,200,250 and 300 mm
The legs of these callipers are made with
rectangular cross-section
 Spring callipers
Spring callipers are improved
varieties of ordinary friction joint
callipers
The two legs carry a curved spring at
the top, fitted in notches
A flanged pin is inserted between the
two legs in the circular grooves
provided a little below the notches
 Transfer callilpers
Transfer callipers are used for
measuring recessed areas from
which the legs of the callipers can
not be removed directly
 Odd leg calliper

Distances from edge can be scribed

Used for finding centers of circular holes,
marking a line parallel to a true edge and
other types of markings
Vernier Calliper
 Least count of vernier calliper
Least count in case of vernier calliper is the
difference between value of one division on
main scale and value of one division on vernier
scale.
Now value of one division on main scale is 1
mm
49 divisions of main scale coincides with 50
divisions on vernier scale
So value of 1 division on vernier scale = 49/50
 Least count = 1-49/50 = 0.02mm
Other method of calculation is taking ratio
of the value of minimum division on the
main scale to the number of divisions on
the vernier scale
 Use
Before use check for zero error
Take reading in mm on the main scale to
the left of zero on sliding scale
Find line on vernier scale which coincides
with main scale line
Total reading = main scale reading + the
number of the division coinciding x L.C
 Types of vernier callipers
Basic Vernier Caliper

The basic vernier caliper will have two sets

of jaws and a depth blade. The large jaws
are used to clamp an object to measure
outer diameters and widths.
At the end of the body is the depth blade
that slides out to measure the depth of
 Long Jaw Vernier Caliper

The long jaw vernier caliper is used

when you need to measure hard to
reach areas.
 Knife Edge Vernier Caliper

The knife edge vernier caliper have the

large and small jaws made sharp like a
knife. This kind of caliper is used when
you need to measure objects with thin
grooves.
 Chisel Edge Vernier Caliper

The chisel edge caliper has long jaws

with a chiseled edge. This kind of
caliper is used when you need to
measure narrow grooves inside holes.
Groove Vernier Caliper

This caliper has points on the jaws to measure

inside grooves. It can measure the width, depth,
and shape of the grooves. A caliper with the points
facing inwards measures outside grooves.
 Precautions to be taken while use
There should not be any play between moving
and fixed jaw
Tips of the jaws are worn after some use, that
should be taken into account
Do not push the moving jaw under pressure
Use adjusting screw for fine adjustment
In case of measuring diameters, be sure that the
calliper bar and plane of calliper jaws are truly
perpendicular to the w/ps longitudinal center
line
 Errors in vernier calliper
Errors due to play between the sliding jaw
and fixed scale bar
Zero error due to wear and wrapping of
jaws
Excessive force on moving jaw
Incorrect observation of scale readings
Vernier height gauge
It is a vernier principle based instrument
used for accurate measurement and
marking of vertical heights above a surface
plate datum
 Construction
construction is same as vernier calliper
except that the fixed jaw is replaced by
fixed base
There is a column or vertical graduated
beam on the base
Sliding jaw is attached to the sliding
vernier head
Clamping and fine adjustment screws are
provided
Sliding jaw carries a removable clamp
 Precautions to be taken in use of vernier
height gauge
The height gauge should be kept in its
case when not in use
It should be tested properly
Base should be clean at the time of use
For final reading sliding jaw should be
locked to the beam
Vernier depth gauge

Main scale

Fine
adjustment
screw
Vernier
Movable scale
head Base
Depth
being
measured
 It is used to measure the depths of holes,
slots and recesses, to locate centre
distances etc.
It consists of a sliding head, a graduated
beam known as main scale and an
auxilliary head with fine adjustment,
clamping screw
The end of the sliding head can be set at
any point with fine adjustment mechanism
locked and read from the vernier provided
on it
 While using the instrument the base is
held firmly on the reference surface and
lower the beam into the hole until it
contacts the bottom surface
Fine adjustment is done
Clamping screw is then tightened and
the instrument is removed from the hole
Reading is taken in the same way as
vernier calliper
 Precautions to be taken in use of vernier
depth gauge
The depth gauge should be kept in its case
when not in use
It should be tested properly
Reference surface should be satisfactorily
true, flat and square
For final reading sliding jaw should be
locked to the beam
 Micrometer
Micrometer is the most common and most
popular forms of measuring instrument for
precise measurement with 0.01 mm
accuracy
Micrometers with 0.001 mm accuracy are
also available
Classification
Outside micrometer
Inside micrometer
Depth gauge micrometer
 Principal of Micrometer
Micrometers work on the principle of screw
and nut
When a screw is turned through nut through
one revolution, it advances by one pitch
distance
If circumference of the screw is divided into
number of equal parts say n , its rotation
through one division will cause the screw to
advance through (pitch/n) length
 Thus the minimum length that can be
measured by such arrangement will be
( pitch/n)
By reducing the pitch or by increasing the
number of division on circumference of
screw, accuracy can be increased
 Least count of Micrometer

Least count is the minimum distace which

can be measured accurately by the
instrument
The micrometer has a screw pitch of 0.5 mm
pitch, with thimble graduated in 50 divisions
L.C = (pitch/n)= (0.5 / 50 ) = 0.01 mm
L.C of micrometer = Pitch of the spindle
screw
/number of divisions
on the spindle
 outside micrometer
 Main parts
1) U-shaped steel frame :
) the outside micrometer has U
shaped frame.
) It holds all the micometer parts
together.
) The frame is generally made of steel,
cast steel, malleable C.I. or light alloy
) It is desirable that frame should be
provided with heat insulating
material grips
2) Anvils
One anvil is fixed on the left end side of
the frame
Another movable anvil is provided on the
front of the spindle
Anvils are accurately ground with its
measuring faces flat and parallel to the
spindle
3) Lock nut
A lock nut is provided on the micrometer
spindle to lock it when the micrometer is
at its correct reading
4) Sleeve or barrel
The sleeve is accurately divided and clearly
marked in 0.5 mm division along its length
which serves as a main scale
It is crome plated and adjustable for zero setting

5) Thimble
The thimble can be moved over the barrel
It has 50 equal divisions around its
circumference
Each division having a value of 0.01 mm
6) Ratchet
The ratchet is provided at the end of the
thimble
It is used to assure accurate measurement
and to prevent too much pressure being
applied to the micometer
 Reading the micrometer

the barrel has graduations , in intervals

of 1 mm above the reference line. There
are also graduations below the reference
line at the middle of two successive upper
graduations, so as to read 0.5 mm
hold the work between the faces of the
anvil and move spindle by rotating the
 Now take reading on the main scale,
for example reading on main scale as
per figure shown will be 3.25 mm
Then take the thimble reading which
coincides with the reference line on the
sleeve, here it is 17
Total reading = main scale reading +
L.C x reading on the thimble
= 3.25 + (17 x 0.01 )
= 3.42 mm
 Precautions to be taken while using micrometer
Clean the micrometer by wiping out oil dirt, dust
and grit
Clean measuring faces of anvil
Set the zero reading of the instrument before
use
Always make fine adjustment by ratchet

Procedure for setting zero

Before use it is necessary to set zero
First clean the measuring faces and then rotate
the thimble until the two anvils are touching
 Take reading, reading should be zero
If it is not zero , there is zero error
Then use the adjusting spanner to
correct the error with slight rotation
of the barrel
 Depth Micometer
 Depth micrometer is used to measure
depth
It has a shoulder which acts as reference
surface
The shoulder is held firmly and
perpendicular to the center line of the hole
Extension rods in steps of 25 mm may be
used for longer range of measurement
Scale is in the reverse direction
Inside Micrometer
 A series of extension rods are provided in order
to obtain a wide measuring range
For taking measurements with this instrument
first the diameter of bore is measured approx. by
scale
Extension rod is selected
Zero error is checked
Micrometer is then held firmly against the bore
and contact surface is adjusted by moving the
thimble till correct feel is sensed
The micrometer is then removed and reading
taken
Slip gauges
 Slip gauges are universally accepted end
standard of length in industry which were
introduced by Johanson, a Swedish
engineer
Also called Johanson gauges
Rectangular blocks of high grade steel with
exceptionally close tolerances also
sometimes from tungsten carbide
Hardened for resistance to wear , then
hardening stresses are removed
Carefully finished by high grade lapping to
high degree of finish
 The cross section of these gauges
are 9 x 30 mm for sizes upto 10 mm
and 9 x 35 mm for larger sizes
Dimensions are marked on one of the
measuring faces of gauge block
 Wringing of slip gauges
Slip gauges are wrung together by hand
through a combined sliding and twisting motion
Procedure for wringing
Before using, slip gauges are cleaned by using
a lint free cloth, a chamois leather or a cleaning
tissue
One slip gauge is then oscillated slightly over
the other gauge with a light pressure
One gauge is then placed at 90 to other by
using light pressure and then it is rotated untill
the blocks brought in one line
 In this way air is expelled out from between
the gauge faces causing the gauge blocks to
adhere
The adhesion is caused by partly by
molecular attraction and partly by
atmospheric pressure
The wrung gauge can be handled as a unit
without need for clamping all the pieces
together
 Uses of slip gauges
For checking accuracy of vernier
callipers,micrometers and such other
instruments
Setting up a comparator to a specific
dimension
For measuring angle of workpiece and also
for angular setting in conjunction with a
sine bar
 To check gap between parallel locations
such as in gap gauges or between two
mating parts
 Selection of slip gauges for required
dimension
Always start with the last decimal place
and deduct this from the required
dimension. For example, lets suppose that
the dimension to be build up is 29.758.
Here for last decimal place of 0.008, select
1.008 mm slip gauge. Now dimension left
= 29.758-1.008 = 28.75 mm
Select next smallest figure in the same
way, find the remainder and continue this
until the required dimension is completed
In our example second decimal place is
 Now remainder = 28.75-1.25 = 27.5 mm
Now select 7.5 mm and 20 mm slip gauge
to build up the required combination.
Thus we have 20+7.5+1.25+1.008 =
29.758 mm
 care of slip gauges
Protect all the surfaces against climatic conditions by
applying suitable anticorrosive
Keep in suitable case
Gauges should not be magnetized otherwise they will
attract metallic dust
Remove protective coating applied to it with petrol
before use
Clean well before use
Handling while use should be minimum to avoid
transfer of heat from hand to gauges
For highest accuracy measurement is necessary at 20
C
Immediately after use, the gauges should be slid apart,
cleaned and the measuring faces coated with suitable
protective layer
Telescopic gauge
 The telescopic gauge is used for measuring internal
diameter of holes, slots and grooves etc.
It consists of a handle with two rods in a tube at one
end and a working screw at the other end
The rods having spherical contacts can slide within a
tube and are forced apart by an internal spring
The locking screw can lock the rods at any desired
position through a spring
For taking measurements, the rods are pressed
closer and inserted into the hole to be measured
The rods then open to touch the metal surface of
the hole on both sides, then they are locked
The telescopic gauge is then taken out from the hole
and dimension across the tips is measured by
micrometer or vernier calliper
Dial Indicator
 Uses of dial indicator
To compare two heights
To check geometrical forms like
ovality, straightness, taper
To take accurate measurements of
deformation in tensile and
compressive testing materials