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Francis, 2013
Electron Beam
X-rays Discovered by Roentgen, 1895
= 0.1 10 nm
For light, the minimum resolvable distance between 2 points:
= / NA Limiting case for light 200m or nm
The smaller wavelengths of X-Rays (0.1 10 nm) are similar to the size of atoms (0.1 0.2 nm), and
have energies that correspond to the energy differences between the inner atomic orbitals.
Fundamental Equivalency
Etotal = . T4 = ergs/sec/m2
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.672 10-16 erg/K
E = 2hc2/51/(e(hc/ (T-1))
T = hc/3m
T = (2897.8 / m) K = Wiens Law, where m is the wavelength of the most abundant photons
Characteristic Spectral Lines
Characteristic Spectral Lines
X-Ray Tubes
60 kV Rhodium K lines and continuous spectrum
Rh K
Rh K
Braggs Law (1912)
X-Ray diffraction by atomic
lattice planes of crystals
n = 2 d sin()
n = 2 d sin()
Antigorite
Counts
X-ray Diffractogram
I = illite
S = smectite
Chl = chlorite
Clay Minerals Q = quartz
K = kaolinite
n = 2 d sin()
n = 2 d sin()
Illite Crystallinity
n = 2 d sin()
Mapping Alteration
Halos
Chemical Analysis
emission
emission
excitation emission
X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis
The excitation is produced by X-rays. The advantage of XRF
analysis is that it can analyze many elements down to levels of
ppm. The disadvantage of XRF analysis is that X-rays are
difficult to focus, and thus it is difficult to analyze small volumes.
XRF is the method of choice for obtaining the chemical
compositions of powdered or fused bulk rock samples.
Electron Microprobe
~ 1 micron
spot
WDS: Wavelength Dispersive Analysis
Diopside
Ca(MgFe)Si2O6
Hornblende
Wavelength dispersive analysis (WDS) is inherently more precise because of the better resolution of the spectral
peaks. The disadvantage of WDS is that peaks must be occupied sequentially by the spectrometer, which slows
the analytical process. With 4 spectrometers, a 10 element major analysis takes approximately ~ 4 minutes of data
acquisition. WDS is the method of choice for high-quality quantitative analysis.
Energy dispersive analysis (EDS) has less energy resolution, but has the advantage that all spectral lines are
accumulated simultaneous, giving a complete analysis in ~ 20 seconds. EDS is the method of choice for
qualitative identification analyses.
Quantitative Analysis
Fluorescence Correction
The critical excitation energy (Ec) of an element is the energy threshold needed to dislodge inner
electrons and generate characteristic X-rays. In addition to the incident electrons, however, X-
rays from the ionization of elements with higher Ec will also ionize atoms of elements with
lower Ec, whose own characteristic X-ray emission lines will then be enhanced. There is also
fluorescence caused by the X-ray continuum or continuous X-ray background emission produced
by electron deflections. As an electron passes near an atomic nucleus, it may be slowed by the
electric field of the nucleus, causing a quantum jump to a lower energy state and the emission of
more X-rays.