LAMINAR PREMIXED

FLAMES
 OVERVIEW
Applications:
Heating appliances
Bunsen burners
Burner for glass product manufacturing

Importance of studying laminar premixed flames:

Some burners use this type of flames as shown
by examples above
Prerequisite to the study of turbulent premixed
flames. Both have the same physical processes
and many turbulent flame theories are based
on underlying laminar flame structure.
 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
Physical characteristics
Figure 8.2 shows typical flame temperature
profile, mole fraction of reactants,R, and
volumetricQ& heat release, .
Velocity of reactants entering the flame, u =
flame propagation velocity, SL
Products heated product density (b) <
reactant density (u). Continuity requires that
burned gas velicity, b >= unburned gas vel., u
u u A = b b A (8.1)
 For a typical hydrocarbon-air flame at
Patm, u/b 7 considerable
acceleration of the gas flow across the
flame (b to u).
A flame consists of 2 zones:
Preheat zone, where little heat is released
Reaction zone, where the bulk of chemical
energy is released
Reaction zone consists of 2 regions:
Thin region (less than a millimeter), where
reactions are very fast
Wide region (several millimeters), where
reactions are slow
 In thin region (fast reaction zone), destruction of
the fuel molecules and creation of many
intermediate species occur. This region is
dominated by bimolecular reactions to produce CO.
Wide zone (slow reaction zone) is dominated by
radical recombination reactions and final burnout of
CO via CO + OH CO2 +H

Flame colours in fast-reaction zone:

If air > stoichiometric proportions, excited CH
radicals result in blue radiation.
If air < stoichiometric proportions, the zone appears
blue-green as a result of radiation from excited C2.
 In both flame regions, OH radicals contribute to
the visible radiation, and to a lesser degree due
to reaction CO + O CO2.
If the flame is fuel-rich (much less air), soot will
form, with its consequent blackbody continuum
radiation. Although soot radiation has its
maximum intensity in the infrared (recall
Wiens law for blackbody radiation), the
spectral sensitivity of the human eye causes us
to see a bright yellow (near white) to dull
orange emission, depending on the flame
temperature
Figure 1. Spectrum of flame colours
Typical Laboratory Premixed Flames
The typical Bunsen-burner flame is a dual
flame: a fuel rich premixed inner flame
surrounded by a diffusion flame. Figure 8.3
illustrates a Bunsen burner.
The diffusion flame results when CO and OH
from the rich inner flame encounter the
ambient air.
The shape of the flame is determined by
the combined effects of the velocity profile
and heat losses to the tube wall.
 For the flame to remain stationary,
SL = normal component of u = u sin (8.2).
Figure 8.3b illustrates vector diagram.
 Example 8.1. A premixed laminar flame is
stabilized in a one-dimensional gas flow where
the vertical velocity of the unburned mixture,
u, varies linearly with the horizontal
coordinate, x, as shown in the lower half of
Fig. 8.6. Determine the flame shape and the
distribution of the local angle of the flame
surface from vertical. Assume the flame speed
SL is independent of position and equal to
0.4m/s (constant), a nominal value for a
stoichiometric methane-air flame.
 Solution
From Fig. 8.7, we see that the local angle, , which
the flame sheet makes with a vertical plane is
(Eqn. 8.2)
= arc sin (SL/u), where, from Fig. 8.6,
u (mm/s) = 800 + (1200 800)/20 x (mm)
(known).
u (mm/s) = 800 + 20x.
So,
= arc sin (400/(800 + 20x (mm))
and has values ranging from 30o at x = 0 to19.5o
at x = 20 mm, as shown in the top part of Fig. 8.6.
 To calculate the flame position, we first
obtain an expression for the local slope of
the flame sheet (dz/dx) in the x-z plane,
and then integrate this expression with
respect to x find z(x). From Fig. 8.7, we see
that
 x +S Bx,
1/ 2
for =A
2 2
,which,
dz
tan u
u L

dx S 2
L
1/ 2
dz A Bx 2

becomes 1
dx S L

Integrating the above with A/SL = 2 and B/SL
x
= dz x
z(x) dx (x 80x 1200)
2 0.5
1
0.05 yields 0
dx 40

-10 ln[(x2+80x+1200)1/2+(x+40)]
-203+10 ln(203+40)
The flame position z(x) is plotted in upper
half of Fig. 8.6.
 SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS
Turns (2000) proposes simplified laminar flame
speed and thickness on one-dimensional flame.
Assumptions used:
One-dimensional, constant-area, steady flow.
One-dimensional flat flame is shown in Figure
8.5.
Kinetic and potential energies, viscous shear
work, and thermal radiation are all neglected.
The small pressure difference across the flame
is neglected; thus, pressure is constant.
 The diffusion of heat and mass are
governed by Fourier's and Fick's laws
respectively (laminar flow).
Binary diffusion is assumed.
The Lewis number, Le, which expresses
the ratio of thermal diffusivity, , to mass
diffusivity, D, i.e.,Le k is
unity, k D C p D

u C p
 The Cp mixture f(temperature,
composition). This is equivalent to
assuming that individual species specific
heats are all equal and constant.
Fuel and oxidizer form products in a
single-step exothermic reaction. Reaction
is
1 kg fuel + kg oxidiser ( + 1)kg
products
The oxidizer is present in stoichiometric or
excess proportions; thus fuel is completely
consumed at the flame.
 For this simplified system, SL and found are
(8.20)
m&F
1/ 2

S L 2 1
u
and

2 u

1 F
m&
or (8.21)
2

SL

where is m& volumetric mass rate of fuel and

F

is thermal diffusivity. Temperature profile is

assumed linear from Tu to Tb over the small
distance, as shown in Fig. 8.9.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING FLAME
SPEED (SL) AND FLAME
THICKNESS ()
1. Temperature (Tu and Tb)
Temperature dependencies of SL and can
be inferred from Eqns 8.20 and 8.21.
Explicit dependencies is proposed by Turns
as followsk (T )
T 0.75 Tu P 1
u C p (T ) (8.27)

where is thermal Tb Tu
T 0.5diffusivity, Tu is
unburned gas temperature,
, Tb is burned gas temperature.
 n Tu

m&F / u F . Tb n P n1Tu exp( E A /( RuTb )
(8.28)
P

where the exponent n is the overall reaction

order, Ru = universal gas constant (J/kmol-K),
EA = activation energy (J/kmol)
Combining above scalings yields and
applying Eqs 8.20 and 8.21
0.375 n / 2 EA ( n 2) / 2
SL T T T
(8.29)
u b exp P
2R T
u b
EA n / 2
T 0.375
(8.30)
Tb
n/2
exp P
2 R T
u b
 For hydrocarbons, n 2 and EA 1.67.108 J/kmol
(40 kcal/gmol). Eqn 8.29 predicts S L to increase
by factor of 3.64 when Tu is increased from 300
to 600K. Table 8.1 shows comparisons of S L and
The empirical SL correlation of Andrews and
Bradley [19] for stoichiometric methane-air
flames,
SL (cm/s) = 10 + 3.71.10-4[Tu(K)]2 (8.31)
which is shown in Fig. 8.13, along with data from
several experimenters.
Using Eqn. 8.31, an increase in T u from 300 K to
600 K results in SL increasing by a factor of 3.3,
which compares quite favourably with our
estimate of 3.64 (Table 8.1).
 Table 8.1 Estimate of effects of Tu and Tb on
SL and using Eq 8.29 and 8.30
Case A (ref) B C
Tu (K) 300 600 300
Tb (K) 2,000 2,300 1,700
SL/SL,A 1 3.64 0.46
/A 1 0.65 1.95
Case A: reference
Case C: Tb changes due to heat transfer or
changing equivalent ratio, either lean or rich.
Case B: Tu changes due to preheating fuel
Pressure (P)
From Eq. 8.29, if, again, n 2, SL f (P).
Experimental measurements generally show
a negative dependence of pressure.
Andrews and Bradley [19] found that
SL (cm/s) = 43[P (atm)]-0.5 (8.32)
fits their data for P > 5 atm for methane-air
flames (Fig. 8.14).
Equivalent Ratio ()
Except for very rich mixtures, the primary effect
of on SL for similar fuels is a result of how this
parameter affects flame temperatures; thus, we
would expect S L,max at a slightly rich mixture
and fall off on either side as shown in Fig. 8.15
for behaviour of methane.
Flame thickness () shows the inverse trend,
having a minimum near stoichiometric (Fig.
8.16).
Fuel Type
Fig. 8.17 shows SL for C1-C6 paraffins (single
bonds), olefins (double bonds), and
acetylenes (triple bonds). Also shown is H 2.
SL of C3H8 is used as a reference.
Roughly speaking the C3-C6 hydrocarbons all
follow the same trend as a function of flame
temperature. C2H4 and C2H2 SL > the C3-C6
group, while CH4SL lies somewhat below.
 H2's SL,max is many times > that of C3H8. Several
factors combine to give H2 its high flame speed:
i. the thermal diffusivity () of pure H2 is many
times > the hydrocarbon fuels;
ii. the mass diffusivity (D) of H2 likewise is much >
the hydrocarbons;
iii. the reaction kinetics for H2 are very rapid since
the relatively slow CO CO2 step that is a major
factor in hydrocarbon combustion is absent.
 Law [20] presents a
compilation of Fuel SL (cm/s)
laminar flame-speed
data for various pure CH4 40
fuels and mixtures
shown in Table 8.2. C2H2 136
Table 8.2 SL for C2H4 67
various pure fuels
burning in air for C2H6 43
= 1.0 and at 1 atm
C3H8 44
H2 210
 FLAME SPEED
CORRELATIONS FOR
SELECTED FUELS
Metghalchi and Keck [11] experimentally
determined SL for various fuel-air mixtures
over a range of temperatures and
pressures typical of conditions associated
with reciprocating internal combustion
engines and gas turbine combustors.

Eqn 8.33 similar
Tu to Eqn. 8.29 is proposed
P



SL = SL,ref Tu ,ref P ref(1 2.1Ydil) (8.33)

for Tu 350 K.
 The subscript ref refers to reference conditions
defined by
Tu,ref = 298 K, Pref = 1 atm and
SL,ref = BM + B2( - M)2 (for reference conditions)
where the constants BM, B2, and M depend on
fuel type and are given in Table 8.3.
Exponents of T and P, and are functions of ,
expressed as
= 2.18 - 0.8( - 1) (for non-reference conditions)
= -0. 16 + 0.22( - 1) (for non-reference conditions)
The term Ydil is the mass fraction of diluent
present in the air-fuel mixture in Eqn. 8.33 to
account for any recirculated combustion
products. This is a common technique used to
control NOx in many combustion systems
 Table 8.3 Values for BM, B2, and M used in
Eqn 8.33 [11]
Fuel M BM (cm/s) B2 (cm/s)
Methanol 1.11 36.92 -140.51

Propane 1.08 34.22 -138.65

Iso octane 1.13 26.32 -84.72

RMFD-303 1.13 27.58 -78.54

Example 8.3
Compare the laminar flame speeds of gasoline-
air
mixtures with = 0.8 for the following three
cases:
i. At ref conditions of T = 298 K and P = 1 atm
ii. At conditions typical of a spark-ignition
engine operating at wide-open throttle: T =
685 K and P = 18.38 atm.
iii. Same as condition ii above, but with 15
percent (by mass) exhaust-gas recirculation
Solution
RMFD-303 research fuel has a controlled
composition simulating typical gasolines. The
flame speed at 298 K and 1 atm is given by
SL,ref = BM + B2( - M)2
From Table 8.3,
BM = 27.58 cm/s, B2 = -78.38cm/s, M = 1. 13.
SL,ref = 27.58 - 78.34(0.8 - 1.13)2 = 19.05 cm/s
To find the flame speed at Tu and P other than
the reference state, we employ Eqn. 8.33
SL(Tu, P) = SL,ref

Tu
P



Tu , ref P ref
where
= 2.18-0.8(-1) = 2.34
= -0.16+0.22(-1) = - 0.204
Thus,
SL(685 K, 18.38 atm) =
19.05 (685/298)2.34(18.38/1)-0.204 =73.8cm/s
With dilution by exhaust-gas recirculation, the
flame speed is reduced by factor (1-2.1 Y dil):
SL(685 K, 18.38 atm, 15%EGR) =
73.8cm/s[1-2.1(0.15)]= 50.6 cm/s
 QUENCHING, FLAMMABILITY,
AND IGNITION
Previously steady propagation of
premixed laminar flames
Now transient process: quenching and
ignition. Attention to quenching distance,
flammability limits, and minimum ignition
energies with heat losses controlling the
phenomena.
1. Quenching by a Cold Wall
Flames extinguish upon entering a sufficiently
small passageway. If the passageway is not
too small, the flame will propagate through it.
The critical diameter of a circular tube where
a flame extinguishes rather than propagates,
is referred to as the quenching distance.
Experimental quenching distances are
determined by observing whether a flame
stabilised above a tube does or does not
flashback for a particular tube diameter when
the reactant flow is rapidly shut off.
 Quenching distances are also determined using
high-aspect-ratio rectangular-slot burners. In
this case, the quenching distance between the
long sides, i.e., the slit width.
Tube-based quenching distances are somewhat
larger (20-50 percent) than slit-based ones
[21]
Ignition and Quenching Criteria
Williams [22] provides 2 rules-of-thumb governing
ignition and flame extinction.
Criterion 1 -Ignition will only occur if enough
energy is added to heat a slab thickness
steadily propagating laminar flame to the
adiabatic flame temperature.
Criterion 2 -The rate of liberation of heat by
chemical reactions inside the slab must
approximately balance the rate of heat loss
from the slab by thermal conduction. This is
applicable to the problem of flame quenching
by a cold wall.
Simplified Quenching Analysis.
Consider a flame that has just entered a
slot formed by two plane-parallel plates as
shown in Fig. 8.18. Applying Williams
second criterion: heat produced by reaction
= heat conduction to the walls, i.e.,
Q&V Q&
(8.34) cond ,tot
&
Q is volumetric heat release rate
Q& m& h
(8.35) F c

m&F
where is volumetric mass rate of fuel,
ishheat of combustion
c
Thickness of the slab of gas analysed = .
Find quenching distance, d.
Solution
dT
&
Qcond kA in gas wall
(8.36)
dx

A = 2L, where L is slot width ( paper) and 2

accountsdTfor contact on both sides (left and
right). dx is difficult to approximate. A
reasonable lower bound of
dT
= Tb Tw
dx
d /b
(8.37)
where b = 2, assuming a linear distribution of T
from the centerline plane at Tb to the wall at Tw.
In general b > 2.
Quenching occurs from Tb to Tw.
 Combining Eqns 8.35-8.37,
(8.38a) Tb Tw

(mF hc )( dL)) k (2 L)
&
d /b
or 2kb Tb Tw
d
2

(8.38b) m&F hc

Assuming Tw = Tu, using Eqn 8.20 (about SL), and

relating
hc ( 1)c p (Tb Tu )
. , Eqn 8.38b becomes

d = 2b /SL (8.39a)
Relating Eqn 8.21 (about ), Eqn 8.39a becomes
d = 2b
Because b 2, value d is always > . Values of d for
fuels are shown Table 8.4.
 Table 8.4 Flammability limits, quenching
distances and minimum ignition energies
Flammability limit Quenching distance, d

min max Stoich-mass For =1 Absolute

air-fuel ratio min, mm
C2H2 0.19 13.3 2.3 -
CO 0.34 6.76 2.46 - -
C10H22 0.36 3.92 15.0 2.1 -
C2H6 0.50 2.72 16.0 2.3 1.8
C2H4 0.41 > 6.1 14.8 1.3 -
H2 0.14 2.54 34.5 0.64 0.61
CH4 0.46 1.64 17.2 2.5 2.0
CH3OH 0.48 4.08 6.46 1.8 1.5
C8H18 0.51 4.25 15.1 - -
C3H8 0.51 2.83 15.6 2.0 1.8
Fuel Minimum ignition energy
For =1 (10-5 J) Absolute
minimum (10-5 J)
C2H2 3 -

CO - -

C10H22 - -

C2H6 42 24

C2H4 9.6 -

H2 2.0 1.8

CH4 33 29

CH3OH 21.5 14

C8H18 - -

C3H8 30.5 26
Example 8.4.
Consider the design of a laminar-flow,
adiabatic, flat-flame burner consisting of a
square arrangement of thin-walled tubes as
illustrated in the sketch below.
Fuel-air mixture flows through both the
tubes and the interstices between the
tubes.
It is desired operate the burner with a
stoichiometric methane-air mixture exiting
the tubes at 300 K and 5 atm
 Determine the mixture mass flowrate per unit
cross-sectional area at the design condition.
Estimate the maximum tube diameter
allowed so that flashback will be prevented.
Solution
To establish a flat flame, the mean flow velocity
must equal the laminar flame at the design
temperature and pressure. From Fig. 8.14,
SL (300K, 5atm) = 43/P (atm) = 43/5 = 19.2cm/s.
The mass flux, , m&is
m& = m&/ A = uu = uSL
Assuming an ideal-gas mixture, where
MWmix = CH4MWCH4 + (1 - CH4)MWair
= 0.095(16.04) + 0.905(28.85)
= 27.6 kg/kmol =5.61kg/m3
(Stoichimetric mass ratio air/ methane = 17.2, see
Table 8.4) m&
Thus, the mass flux is = u S L =
5.61(0.192)= 1.08 kg/(s.m2)
 We assume that if the tube diameter < the
quench distance (d), with some factor-of-
safety applied, the burner will operate
without danger of flashback.
Thus, we need to find the quench distance
at the design conditions.
Fig. 8.16 shows that dslit 1.7 mm. Since dslit
= dtube (20-50%), use dslit outright (our
case) with factor of safety 20-50%. Data in
Fig 8.16 is for slit, design is of tube.
Correction for 5 atm:
 Eqn. 8.39a, d /SL
Eqn 8.27, T1.75/P
d2 = d1 2 S L ,1 d1 P1 S L ,1
1 S L ,2 P2 S L ,2
1 atm 43 cm / s
d(5atm) =1.7mm.
5 atm 19.2 cm / s
ddesign 0.76 mm
Check whether d=0.76 mm gives laminar
flow (Red < 2300).
u d design S L 5.61(0.00076)(0.192)
Re d 51.5
15.89.10 6

Flow is still laminar

2. Flammability Limits
A flame will propagate only within a range of
mixture the so-called lower and upper limits of
flammability. The limit is the leanest mixture (
< 1), while the upper limit represents the
richest mixture ( > 1). = (A/F)stoich /(A/F)actual
by mass or by mole
Flammability limits are frequently quoted as
%fuel by volume in the mixture, or as a % of
the stoichiometric fuel requirement, i.e., ( x
100%). Table 8.4 shows flammability limits of
some fuels
 Flammability limits for a number of fuel-air
mixtures at atmospheric pressure is obtained
from experiments employing "tube method".
In this method, it is ascertained whether or not
a flame initiated at the bottom of a vertical
tube (approximately 50-mm diameter by 1.2-
m long) propagates the length of the tube.
A mixture that sustains the flame is said to be
flammable. By adjusting the mixture strength,
the flammability limit can be ascertained.
 Although flammability limits are physico-
chemical properties of the fuel-air mixture,
experimental flammability limits are related to
losses from the system, in addition to the
mixture properties, and, hence, generally
apparatus dependent [31].
Example 8.5.
A full C3H8 cylinder from a camp stove leaks its
contents of 1.02 lb (0.464 kg) in 12' x 14' x 8'
(3.66 m x 4.27 m x 2.44 m) room at 20 oC and 1
atm. After a long time fuel gas and room air are
well mixed. Is the mixture in the room
flammable?

Solution
From Table 8.4, we see that C3H8-air mixtures
are flammable for 0.51 < < 2.83. Our
problem, thus, is to determine of the mixture
filling the room. Partial pressure of C 3H8 by
assuming ideal-gas behaviour
 mF Ru / MWF T 0.464(8315/44.094)(20 273)
PF
Vroom 3.66(4.27)(2.44)
= 672.3 Pa
Propane mole fraction =
F = PF/P = 672.3/101,325 = 0.00664
and
air = 1 - F = 0.99336
The air-fuel ratio of the mixture in the room
is air MWair 0.99336 (28.85)
(A/F)act = MW 0.00664 (44.094) 97.88
fuel fuel
 From the definition of and the value of
(A/F)stoich from Table 8.4 (i.e. 15.6 by mass
ratio), we have
= (A/F)stoich /(A/F)act = 15.6/97.88 = 0.159
Since = 0.159 < lower limit (= 0. 51), the
mixture in the room is not capable of
supporting a flame.
Comment
Although our calculations show that in the
fully mixed state the mixture is not
flammable, it is quite possible that, during the
transient leaking process, a flammable
mixture can exist somewhere within the room.
C3H8 is heavier than air and would tend to
accumulate near the floor until it is mixed by
bulk motion and molecular diffusion.
In environments employing flammable gases,
monitors should be located at both low and
high positions to detect leakage of heavy and
light fuels, respectively.
3. Ignition
Most of ignition uses electrical spark
(pemantik listrik). Another means is using
pilot ignition (flame from very low-flow fuel).

Simplified Ignition Analysis

Consider Williams second criterion, applied
to a spherical volume of gas, which
represents the incipient propagating flame
created by a point spark. Using the criterion:
Find a critical gas-volume radius, Rcrit, below
which flame will not propagate
Find minimum ignition energy, Eign, to heat
critical gas volume from initial state to flame
temperature (Tu to Tb).
Critical radius, Rcrit, and Eign
(8.40)
Q&V Q&conduction
(propagation)
2 dT
m &(8.41)
F hc 4 R 3crit / 3 k 4 Rcrit
dr Rcrit
where is mass flowrate/volume
Heat transfer process is shown in Figure 8.20

dT
(8.42)
Tb Tu
dr Rcrit Rcrit
Substitution Eqn 8.42 to 8.41 results in
3k Tb Tu
crit
. R(8.43)
m&F hc
Rcrit is therefore determined by the flame propagation
 If R < Rcrit, it would require exothermic heat > hc
Substituting from Eqn 8.20 into Eqn 8.43 will give
(8.44)
Rcrit 6
SL

6/2
Ignition is aimed to increase fluid from Tu to Tb at
the onset of combustion to replace hc (ignition)
(8.45)
Eign mcrit c p Tb Tu
where Eign is minimum ignition energy
 Substitution mcrit=b.4Rcrit3/3 and b using
gas ideal formulae to Eqn 8.45 results in
3
c p Tb Tu (8.47)
Eign 61, 6 P
Rb Tb S L
where Rb = Ru/MWb and Ru = gas constant
4. Dependencies on Pressure,
Temperature
and Composition

Using Eqn 8.27 and 8.29 on Eqn 8.47

demonstrates effect of pressure to be
Eign P-2 (8.48)
(see comparison with experimental result in Fig
8.21)

Eqn 8.47 implies that in general, Tu Eign

(see Table 8.5).
 Eign vs %fuel gives U-shaped plot (Figures
8.22 and 8.23). This figure indicates that
Eign is minimum as a mixture composition
is stoichiometric or near it.
If the mixture gets leaner atau richer, Eign
increases first gradually and then abruptly.
%fuel at Eign = to be ignited are
flammability limits
Figure 8.22. Effect of %fuel on Eign

Figure 8.22. Effect of %fuel on Eign

Figure 8.23. Effect of methane composition
on Eign
 Table 8.5 Temperature influence
on spark-ignition energy

Fuel Initial temp (K) Eign (mJ)

n-heptane 298 14.5
373 6.7
444 3.2
Iso-octane 298 27.0
373 11.0
444 4.8
n-pentane 243 45.0
253 14.5
 Fuel Initial temp (K) Eign (mJ)
n-heptane 298 7.8
373 4.2
444 2.3
propane 233 11.7
243 9.7
253 8.4
298 5.5
331 4.2
356 3.6
373 3.5
477 1.4
References:
Turns, Stephen R., An Introduction to
Combustion, Concepts and
Applications, 2nd edition, McGrawHill,
2000