REASONING:

IMMEDIATE
INFERENCE
A. Definition of Reasoning
.Reasoning is a mental operation through which the agreement or
disagreement of two ideas is inferred from their known relation to
a common third idea.
B. Method of Reasoning
.There are two methods of reasoning: 1.) Induction and 2.)
deduction.
Induction or Inductive reasoning is one which proceeds from
individual or particular data to general or universal conclusion.
Example:
Juan is a man
Juan is mortal.
- All men are mortal
On the other hand, deduction or deductive reasoning is one which
proceeds from universal data to particular and individual
conclusion.

Example:
All animals are mortal.
All humans are animals.
-All humans are mortal.
 Reasoning is expressed through inference
which means that when we speak of reasoning
we mean inference and vice-versa. True
enough, inference has its distinct meaning
(compare to reasoning), but since inference is
the manner through which reasoning, as a
mental operation, is expressed, so it is better
to take these two terms as having correlative
existence and likewise having synonymous
meanings.
C. Definition of Inference

Inference refers to any process through which the mind proceeds from one
or more propositions to other propositions whose meanings are already
implied in the former.

Examples:
All men are mortal.
Julius is a man.
-Julius is mortal

John is a man
-John is mortal
In the first example, the proposition: All men are mortal
enunciates that all creatures who are human beings are
bound to be mortal. In the second and the third
propositions, respectively: Julius is a man. Therefore ,
Julius is mortal, the sweeping idea that any human
being is bound to be mortal permeates. Thus, inasmuch
as Julius is a human being, therefore, he is bound to be
mortal. Simply put, in inference the mind proceeds to
draw one or more propositions (the first proposition: All
men are mortal ) , to other propositions (Julius is a
man Therefore, Julius is mortal) . Evidently, the
meanings of both the second and the third proposition
are already contained in the first proposition.
The same contention can be pursued with regard to the second
example: John is a man. Therefore, John is mortal. This is
because the idea mortal is impliedly contained in the idea man,
so that if one is a man it follows that he must necessarily be mortal.

D. Kinds of Inference

Basically, there are two kinds of inference, namely, 1.) immediate and
2.) mediate. Under immediate inference, we will discuss eduction and
logical opposition (or oppositional inference). In our advertent
discussion of eduction, we will consider conversion, obversion,
contraposition and inversion. And in our treatment of logical
opposition, we will discuss contradictory, contrary, subcontrary, and
subaltern opposition and the rules governing their oppositions.
E. Immediate Inference

Immediate inference is a process of reasoning through which the mind passes directly
from one proposition to a new proposition to a new proposition which is nothing
else but a reformulation (partial or complete) of the very exact meaning or truth as
expressed in the original proposition. Explicitly, therefore, there is no new truth or
meaning achieved in an immediate inference. Thus, immediate inference does not
offer any advancement of knowledge. As the foregoing definition suggests ,
immediate inference contains only two terms, namely, subject term and predicate
term.
Example:
No metals are stones.
(S) (P)
- No stones are metals.
(P) (S)
In the foregoing example, only the subject term and the predicate term are the
basis of reasoning. Thus, in an immediate inference the mind draws a
conclusion without the use of a third term called Middle Term. We now proceed
with eduction and its kinds and opposition and its varied forms and principles.

Eduction. This is a kind of immediate inference where are new proposition is

being formulated either by interchanging the subject and predicate terms of the
original proposition or by the use or removal of negatives. There are four kinds
of eduction, namely, conversion, obversion, contraposition, and inversion.

Conversion. This refers to a formulation of a new propososition by way of

interchanging the subject and the predicate terms of an original proposition.
However, the quality of the original proposition is retained. Conversion has two
(2) parts namely, Convertend (the original proposition ) and the converse (the
new proposition)