EEE351 Principles of Communication Systems: Electrical Engineering

Electrical
Engineering
Islamabad
EEE351
Principles of Communication Systems
Lecture No. 2
Dr. Riaz Hussain
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad
Review
In a communication system, what is a source and a sink
What is a transducer?
Define and distinguish the terms attenuation, distortion and noise.
What is an equalizer.
Distinguish between analog and digital information source and give examples.
What is the role of modem?
What has made digital systems to prevail over analog?
If information source is analog, how can we convert it into a digital signal?
What is the sampling rule? (Sampling theorem/Nyquist Criterion)
Distinguish between bandwidth and spectrum.
Relate signal power with bandwidth. (Shannon Capacity Formula)
Why do we need to modulate the baseband signal?
Can you distinguish between modulation and multiplexing?
Name some analog and digital modulation techniques?
Draw the block diagram of digital transmission system and digital receiver system.
Define role of : Source Encoding Block, Encryption Block, Channel Encoding Block, Decryption
Block, D/A Block etc.
4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 2

Lecture-02
Outline
Size of a Signal
Classification of Signals
Some Useful Signal Operations
Unit Impulse Signal
Signals vs. Vectors
Correlation of Signals
Orthogonal Signal Sets
Trigonometric Fourier Series
The Exponential Fourier Series
Lecture-02
Must Reading
Chapter No. 2: Signals and Signal Space

Lecture-02
Signals
Set of information or data
e.g.:
Telephone (voice) signal
Television (video) signal
Monthly sales figure
Closing price of stock market
Function of independent variable (usually time)
When electric charge is distributed over a surface, the signal is
Spac
charge density and it is a function of? e
We will deal with signals exclusively that are functions of time

Lecture-02
Systems
Modify signals or extract additional information from the
signals
e.g.:
Antiaircraft missile launcher system to locate a hostile moving
target at a future time using the radar signal
System processes signals (input) to yield another set of
signals (output)
System can be made up of physical components (electrical,

mechanical etc.) or may be an algorithm to compute an
output based on input signals

Lecture-02
Size of Signals
Indicates largeness of strength
Signal strength varies with time (generally),
so measurement should consider strength,
considering the duration as well
e.g.:
What is the size of a rectangle? measurement
Product of width and height is a reasonable measure, we can
compare two rectangles on this measurement
Assume, the rectangle was the front view of a cylinder

with radius r
Now what would be a reasonable measure?

Lecture-012
Signal Energy
Area under a signal g(t) is a possible measure
Takes into account amplitude as well as time
But defective:
Positive and negative areas might cancel out
Correction: Why not
Area under
Coz: Energy measurement
Always positive
Signal Energy more tractable mathematically
and meaningful
; for real signals
; generalized for real/complex signals

Lecture-02
Signal Power
Signal Energy must be finite to be meaningful
For signal energy to be finite:
else, integral will not converge
For infinite energy signals a more meaningfulIf periodic or

has statistical
measure is time average ofAverage
the energy (if it exists)
regularity
of the signal amplitude
; for real signals square, i.e. mean squared value, i.e.
; generalized for real/complex signals square of rms
Is it possible that a signal is neither an energy

signal nor a power signal? Yes, e.g. ramp signal
Lecture-02
Units of Signal Energy and Power
Signal Energy: Joules
Signal Power: Watts
Logarithmic scale
Convenient notation to deal with decimal points and
zeros
Particularly, when signal power is very large or very
small
Convention:
dBw ;
dBm ;
Example:

Lecture-02
Example 2.1
Measure the signal
a)
b)
Signal power is square of rms value so,

;
rms value:
Lecture-02
Example 2.2
Measure the power of periodic signals
a) ;
b) ;
c) ;
Lecture-02
Power of Signals
Another important measurement parameter of a

signal is the time average

Lecture-02
Classification of Signals
Continuous Time and Discrete Time
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Energy and Power Signals and Neither
Deterministic and Probabilistic Signals
Even, Odd, Neither

Lecture-02
Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
Continuous Time:
Specified for every value of time
e.g.: Audio, Video
Discrete Time:
Specified only at discrete
points t = nT
e.g.: Quarterly GDP
Different from Analog Vs.
Digital
Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS
4/29/17 15
Lecture-02
Analog and Digital Signals
Analog:
Amplitude can have any value in the continuous range
Digital:
Amplitude can take on only a finite number of values

Lecture-02
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Periodic:
if for some positive constant T0

for all t;
else
Aperiodic:

Lecture-02
Energy and Power Signals
Energy:

A signal with finite energy
Power:
A signal with finite and nonzero power
Energy and Power
signals are mutually
exclusive
As averaging over an infinitely large interval:
a signal with finite energy has zero power
a signal with finite power has infinite energy
Neither Energy nor Power
A signal with infinite power: Signals e.g. Ramp
Lecture-02
Deterministic and Probabilistic Signals
Deterministic:
Physical description is known completely
Mathematical or
Graphical
Probabilistic or Random:
Known only in terms of probabilistic description
Mean value
Mean Square value
RMS
Distribution
e.g. noise, message (as randomness)
Lecture-02
Even, Odd, Neither Signals
Even:
Mirror
e.g.
Odd:
Negative mirror
e.g.
Neither:

Lecture-02
Some Useful Signals
Unit Step Function:
Unit Ramp:
Impulse:
Unit Impulse:
Unit Rectangular Pulse:
Unit Triangular Pulse:
Sinc Function:

Lecture-02
Unit Impulse Function
Also called Dirac Delta Functoin
Narrow rectangular pulse with unit area

Width () very small value
Height () very large value, limit
Graphically, represented by a spearlike symbol

Lecture-02
Unit Impulse Function
Multiplication
of a Function by Unit Impulse
Remember
At
So,
Sampling or Sifting
provided, Property
The sampling property:
i.e. area under the product of a function with unit impulse is the
value of that function at the instant where the unit impulse is
located

Lecture-02
Unit Step Function

Can make a signal causal Signal
A system is said to becausalsystem

if its output depends on present and
past inputs only and not on future
inputs. i.e. g(t) = 0 ; t < 0

Lecture-02
Unit Step Function & Unit Impulse Function

Area from -

Lecture-02
Some Useful Signal Operations
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion (Folding)
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication

Lecture-02
Signals and Vectors
A signal that is defined only for a finite
Closely
related number of time instants (say N) can be
A vector has components represented as vector (of dimension N)
So, does the signal
So,
Consider a signal g(t)
Begin with basic concepts of vectors
defined in time interval
Apply them to signals [a,b], we pick N points
Component of a vector along
Smallest another vector:
in terms of x
error vector,
Normal to x g is N
is the error
dimensional
vector
vector

We can approximate g would transform into a
continuous time signal
With the error in approximation g(t)
Lecture-02
Signals and Vectors

Inner product
Inner Product: (or scalar product)

Definition:
Therefor:
When, x and y are orthogonal vectors
The concept of vector components and orthogonality can

be directly extended to continuous time signal
Lecture-02
Decomposition of a Signal and Signal
Components
Lets
approximate the real signal in terms of another
real signal in the interval
The error () in the approximation:
For best approximation:

Minimize the error signal, i.e. minimize its norm
Minimum signal norm corresponds to minimum energy Ee over the
interval

Lecture-02
Components

is minimum for some choice of c

Lecture-02
Components

If a signal is approximated by another signal as

then the optimum value of c that
minimizes the energy of the error signal is:
c(t) is the projection of g(t) on x(t)

If component of g(t) of the form x(t) is zero i.e. c(t)
=0 then g(t) and x(t) are orthogonal in [t1, t2]
Lecture-02
Components
i.e. two signals are orthogonal when there is zero
contribution from one signal to the other
Inner product
of two signals
So, the inner product of two signals y(t) and x(t)
is:
Two signals
are
orthogonal if
Inner product of two N dimensional vectors is:

Lecture-02
Components

Example: 2.5: Approximate the given signal g(t) in terms
of Sin(t)
Solution:
For best approximation determine optimum value of c
x(t) = ?
Ex =?

Lecture-02
Complex Signals Space and Orthogonality
Lets, generalize the results for complex functions:
We approximate the function g(t) by function x(t),
BUT, now signals are complex
in terms of
X
Energy of the complex signal is:
For best approximation choose c that minimizes Ee

Lecture-02
Complex Signals Space and Orthogonality
Use:

To get:
Two complex functions are orthogonal if:
Definition of inner product for complex functions:
Consequently, norm of a complex function:

Lecture-02
Energy of the Orthogonal Signals
Proof

Lecture-02
Power of the Orthogonal Signals
The concepts of orthogonality and inner

product extend to power signals

Lecture-02

and
Correlation
Product of Norms
Definition:
For Energy Signals:

Lecture-02
Correlation: Examples
Example 2.6:

Lecture-02
Correlation: Application to Signal Detection

Correlation: Measure of degree of similarity
Used in:
Radar, Sonar, Digital Communication, Electronic
Warfare, etc.
Example:
Lets transmit a signal pulse to detect a target, if
Pulse reflected => Target is present
Else => No target
Challenge:
Detect the heavily attenuated pulse in the presence of noise
Solution:
Use the correlation of the transmitted pulse with
received pulse

Lecture-02

(RTT)
Received Signal:
Noise and
Interference
Key to target detection is orthogonality between and i.e.
To detect a find the correlation between and the delayed

pulse

When is unknown:
We use a bank of N correlators each using a different delay
relation at correct delay t0
Lecture-02
In Digital
Communication we are required to detect the presence of one
of two known waveforms
In Binary Communication:
Waveforms are received in a random sequence
Each time a pulse is received, our task is to determine which of the two
waveforms has been received
To make detection easier:
Choose pulses that are most dissimilar ; i.e. one pulse is negative of other Antipodal
Scheme
We can also use orthogonal pulses:
Antipodal best in terms of distinguishability
Reduce the margin
Find the correlation coefficient () with , If

Of noise
2 (1 to -1 )
In the presence of noise:
detector
Lecture-02

Correlation Functions
pulse
Through correlation, we can ascertain the presence or absence of a

target
To determine the distance:
Measure the time delay between transmitted and received pulses
Direct measurement of would yield
i.e. Zero correlation
As pulses are disjoint, non-overlapping in time
Pulses are identical, BUT with Relative Time Shift
So, compare received pulse with shifted by
If for some value of , there is a strong correlation

We, detect the target and
Distance as well, is called
Cross-Correlation
Lecture-02
Autocorrelation Functions
The correlation of a signal with itself

The autocorrelation function of a function
Is the measure of similarity of a signal with its own displaced

version
Autocorrelation provides valuable information about the signal

spectrum

Lecture-02
Signal Representation By Orthogonal Signal
Sets
Proof

Lecture-02
Orthogonal Vector Space
Proof

Lecture-02
Orthogonal Signal Space
Proof
Generalized
Fourier Series
Set of Basis Functions

Or Basis Signals
Lecture-02
Parsevals Theorem
Energy of the sum of orthogonal signals

is the sum of their energies
Energy of a component is
So
This is exactly, what we see in vector space:

Square of a length is sum of squares of
4/29/17
orthogonal components
Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 48
Lecture-02
Generalized Fourier Series
Signals are vectors in every sense
Just as a vector can be represented as a sum of its e.g.:

components in a variety of ways, so does a signal Trigonometric (sinusoid)
fn
Exponential (sinusoid) fn
Just as we have vector coordinate system formed Walsh functions
Bessel functions
by mutually orthogonal vectors, we also have Legendre polynomials
signal coordinate system (basis signal) formed Laguerre functions
Jacobi polynomials
by variety of sets of mutually orthogonal signals Hermitian polynomials
Chebyshev polynomials
There exists a large number of orthogonal signal

sets that can be used as basis signal or
generalized Fourier Series

Lecture-02
Proof

Lecture-02
Proof

Lecture-02
Proof

Lecture-02
Proof

Lecture-02
Compact Fourier Series
Proof

Lecture-02
Periodicity of Trigonometric Series
Proof

Lecture-02
Properties of Trigonometric Series
Example:

Lecture-02
Example (cntd.):

Lecture-02
Example (cntd.):

Lecture-02
Exponential Fourier Series

Lecture-02
Amplitude and Phase Spectra Exponential
Fourier Series
Interesting Observations:
1. Spectra exists for positive as well as negative values of f, i.e. negative
frequencies
2. Amplitude spectrum is an even function of f and phase spectrum is odd function
of f
3. There is a close connection between spectra of exponential Fourier series and
Trigonometric Fourier series
Lecture-02
Trigonometric and Exponential Fourier Series

Lecture-02
Parsevals Theorem

Lecture-02
What Does Negative Frequency Mean?
Frequency
is a positive value? Yes
Number of rotations
per second
Then what does mean?
Lets use trigonometric identity
So, frequency of a sinusoid is , which is a positive quantity

The negative sign indicates the direction of rotation
Negative frequency is meaningful only when considering
complex sinusoid
Real valued sinusoids describe only the rate of the sinusoidal
variations and NOT the direction of variation

Lecture-02
What Does Negative Frequency Mean?
Consider
a complex signal
Positive OR Negative both lead to periodic variation of the same rate
For positive frequency the exponential sinusoid rotates

counterclockwise and for negative frequency exponential sinusoid
rotates clockwise
Lecture-02

EEE351 Principles of Communication Systems: Electrical Engineering

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Electrical

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 2

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 4

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 5

System can be made up of physical components (electrical,

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 6

Assume, the rectangle was the front view of a cylinder

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 7

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 8

else, integral will not converge

For infinite energy signals a more meaningfulIf periodic or

Is it possible that a signal is neither an energy

Signal Power: Watts

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 10

Signal power is square of rms value so,

Another important measurement parameter of a

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 13

Analog and Digital Signals

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

Energy and Power Signals and Neither

Deterministic and Probabilistic Signals

Even, Odd, Neither

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 16

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 17

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 20

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 21

Narrow rectangular pulse with unit area

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 22

The sampling property:

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 23

A system is said to becausalsystem

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 24

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 25

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 26

Inner Product: (or scalar product)

The concept of vector components and orthogonality can

For best approximation:

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 29

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 30

If a signal is approximated by another signal as

c(t) is the projection of g(t) on x(t)

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 32

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 33

For best approximation choose c that minimizes Ee

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 34

Two complex functions are orthogonal if:

Definition of inner product for complex functions:

Consequently, norm of a complex function:

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 36

The concepts of orthogonality and inner

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 37

For Energy Signals:

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 38

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 39

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 40

Key to target detection is orthogonality between and i.e.

To detect a find the correlation between and the delayed

Through correlation, we can ascertain the presence or absence of a

If for some value of , there is a strong correlation

The correlation of a signal with itself

Is the measure of similarity of a signal with its own displaced

Autocorrelation provides valuable information about the signal

4/29/17 Riaz Hussain (rhussain@comsats.edu.pk) CIIT-IBD-EE EEE351 PCS 44