Module - 4 Welding

WELDING
WELDING
Welding is a materials joining process which
produces coalescence of materials by heating them to
suitable temperatures with or without the application
of pressure or by the application of pressure alone,
and with or without the use of filler material.
Welding is a process of joining similar metals by
application of heat with or without application
of pressure and addition of filler material.
The result is a continuity of homogeneous material

of the composition and characteristics of two parts
which are being joined together
Weldability
The term weldability has been defined as the
capacity of being welded into inseparable
joints having specified properties such as
definite weld strength, proper structure.
Types of welding
Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding
The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic

state and forced together by external pressure
Eg Resistance welding
Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding
The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed

to solidify
Eg- Gas welding, thermit welding
Classification of welding processes
1. Arc welding
Carbon arc
Metal arc
Metal inert gas
Tungsten inert gas
Plasma arc
Submerged arc
Electro-slag
2. Gas Welding
Oxy-acetylene
Air-acetylene
Oxy-hydrogen
3. Resistance Welding
Butt
Spot
Seam
Projection
Percussion
4. Thermit Welding
5. Solid State Welding

Friction
Ultrasonic
Diffusion
Explosive
Newer Welding
Electron-beam
Laser
Gas welding
Gas welding is also called as oxy-fuel welding
Heat for welding is obtained from the combustion of

a fuel gas such as acetylene in combination with
oxygen.
The fuel gas generally used is acetylene because of

high temperature generated in the flame
This process is called oxy acetylene welding

Gas welding
The heat generated in accordance with a pair of
chemical reaction
C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 +heat
This reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon

monoxide and hydrogen, it produces about one third
of the total heat generated in the flame
The secondary combustion process is

Gas welding
2CO + H2 +1.5 O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat
This reaction consists of burning of the hydrogen

and carbon monoxide ,this second reaction
produces about two-third of the total heat.
The temperature developed as a result of these

reaction can reach 3300C
Gas welding
Equipments used for gas welding
Gas Cylinders
Regulators
Pressure Gauges
Hoses
Welding torch
Check valve
Non return valve

Gas welding
Steps in oxy acetylene welding
Prepare the edges to be joined ,and establish and

maintain their proper position by use of clamps and
fixtures
Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at the tip
of the torch
Open the oxygen valve and adjust the flame for a

particular operation
Gas welding
Hold the torch at about 45 from the plane of the
work piece, with the inner flame near the work piece
and filler rod at about 30 - 40
Touch the filler rod to the joint and control its

movement along the joint length by observing the rate
of melting and filling of the joint
Gas welding
Gas welding
Types of flames
The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas
mixture is an important factor in oxy-fuel gas welding
At a ratio of 1:1 that is, when no excess oxygen ,it is

considered as neutral flame
Types of flames
With greater oxygen supply it becomes oxidizing.
Flame
This flame is harmful for steel ,because it oxidizes
steel
Types of flames
If the ratio of oxygen is deficient ,the flame becomes
a reducing or carburizing flame
The temperature of the reducing flame is lower
(having excess acetylene)
Arc welding
In arc welding heat is liberated at the arc terminals
and this heat is used to melt the metals to be welded
at the point of contact
The metal will flow together and form an integral

mass ,thus different parts may be joined
A filler metal is also added to the surface of the metal

Arc welding
It is a process of joining two metal pieces by melting
the edges by an electric arc.
The electric arc is produced between two conductors.
The electrode is one conductor and the work piece is

another conductor.
The electrode and the work piece are brought nearer

with small air gap. (3mm app.)
Arc welding
When current is passed an electric arc is produced between the
electrode and the work piece.
The work piece and the electrode are melted by the arc. Both
molten piece of metal become one. Temperature of arc is about
4000c
Electrodes used in arc welding are coated with a flux. This flux
produces a gaseous shield around the molten metal.
Arc welding
It prevents the reaction of the molten metal with oxygen
and nitrogen in the atmosphere.
The flux removes the impurities from the molten metal and
form a slag. This slag gets deposited over the weld metal.
This protects the weld seam from rapid cooling.

Arc welding
Equipments:
A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)

Two cables- one for work and one for electrode
Electrode holder
Electrode
Protective shield
Gloves
Wire brush
Chipping hammer
Goggles
Arc welding
Arc welding
Advantages Limitations
Most efficient way to join Manually applied,
metals therefore high labor
Lowest-cost joining cost.
method Need high energy
Affords lighter weight causing danger
through better utilization Not convenient for
of materials disassembly.
Joins all commercial Defects are hard to
metals detect at joints.
Provides design flexibility
Carbon arc welding
In carbon arc welding, the intense of heat of an electric arc between
a carbon electrode and work piece metal is used for welding.
DC power supply is used.
The carbon electrode is connected to negative terminal and work

piece is connected to positive terminal, because positive terminal is
hotter (4000c) than the negative terminal (3000c) when an arc is
produced.
Carbon arc welding
So carbon from the electrode will not fuse and mix up
with the metal weld.
If carbon mixes with the weld, the weld will become

weak and brittle.
To protect the molten metal from the atmosphere the

welding is done with a long arc.
In this case, a carbon monoxide gas is produced, which

surrounds the molten metal and protects it.
Carbon arc welding is used to weld both ferrous and
non ferrous metals. Sheets of steel, copper alloys,
brass and aluminum can be welded in this method.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW )
Shielded Metal Arc Welding, also known as manual
metal arc welding, stick welding, or electric arc
welding
Welding is performed with the heat of an electric arc

that is maintained between the end of a coated metal
electrode and the work piece
The heat produced by the arc melts the base metal, the
electrode core rod, and the coating
Shielded metal arc welding
Shielded metal arc welding
As the molten metal droplets are transferred across
the arc and into the molten weld puddle, they are
shielded from the atmosphere by the gases produced
from the decomposition of the flux coating.
The slag covers the molten pool where it protects the

weld metal from the atmosphere during solidification.
SMAW can be performed both on A C and D C

source
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
SAW is an arc welding process in which heat is generated
by an arc which is produced between consumable
electrode and the work piece.
The arc and the weld zone are completely covered under
a blanket of granular, fusible flux which melts and
provides protection to the weld pool from the atmospheric
gases.
A hopper and a feeding mechanism are used to provide a

flow of flux over the joint being welded
The molten flux surrounds the arc thus protecting arc

from the atmospheric gases.
The molten flux reacts with the molten metal forming
slag and improves its properties and later floats on the
molten/solidifying metal to protect it from atmospheric
gas contamination and retards cooling rate
Since the arc is fully covered by the flux,it is not

visible and the weld is run without the spatter and
spark
SAW can be performed both on A C and D C source

Advantages
Joints can be prepared with a shallow V groove resulting lesser

electrode consumption
Weld spatter is eliminated and nearly 100% deposition is

effectively achieved
High welding speed is possible
Wire electrodes are inexpensive
Entire welding takes place beneath a bath of molten flux ,

without spark , smoke or fire
Limitations
It cant be used for plates less than 5mm thick
It cant weld cast iron because of high heat input
Slag cannot be removed continuously after it has

melted in order to avoid entrapment between passes
Flux subjected to contamination and adsorption of

moisture
TIG Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) or Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA)
welding is the arc welding process in which arc is
generated between non consumable tungsten
electrode and work piece.
The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded

by an inert gas normally argon and helium.
The tungsten arc process is being employed widely

for the which require controlled heat input. precision
joining of critical components
TIG Welding
TIG Welding
TIG Welding
The small intense heat source provided by the
tungsten arc is ideally suited to the controlled melting
of the material.
Since the electrode is not consumed during the

process, welding without filler material can be done
without the need for continual compromise between
the heat input from the arc and the melting of the filler
metal.
The filler metal, when required, can be added directly

to the weld pool from a separate wire feed system or
manually
TIG Welding
In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the

shielding gas nozzle.
The arc is ignited by high voltage, high frequency

(HF) pulses, or by touching the electrode to the work
piece and withdrawing to initiate the arc
Advantages
Weld composition is close to that of the parent

metal;
High quality weld structure
Slag removal is not required (no slag)
Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal

due to concentration of heat in small zone
Disadvantages
Low welding rate

Relatively expensive
Requires high level of operators skill
MIG (GMAW)
The "Metal" in Gas Metal Arc Welding refers to the

wire that is used to start the arc. It is shielded by inert
gas and the feeding wire also acts as the filler rod.
MIG welding process an arc is formed between the

wire electrode and the work piece.
During the MIG welding process, the electrode melts

with the arc and becomes deposited as filler material.
MIG (GMAW)
The shielding gas that is used to prevents atmospheric
contamination and protects the weld during
solidification
The shielding gas also assists with stabilizing the arc

which provides a smooth transfer of metal from the
weld wire to the molten weld pool.
MIG (GMAW)
MIG (GMAW)
Uses a consumable wire electrode
Provides a uniform weld bead.
Produces a slag-free weld bead.
Uses a shielding gas, usually argon, argon - 1 to 5%

oxygen, argon - 3 to 25% CO2 and a combination
argon/helium gas.
MIG (GMAW)
Allows welding in all positions.
Is considered a semi-automatic welding process.
Requires less operator skill than TIG welding.
Allows long welds to be made without starts or stops.
Needs little cleanup.

Advantages
Continuous weld may be produced (no

interruptions);
High level of operators skill is not required
Slag removal is not required (no slag)
Disadvantages
Expensive and non-portable equipment is

required
Outdoor application are limited because of
effect of wind, dispersing the shielding gas.
Resistance welding
Resistance Welding
The resistance of metal to the
localized flow of current
produces heat
Process variables
Current
Time
Force
Spot and seam welding
Spot welding
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding processes are a fast and reliable
means of joining thin sheets of metal together.
The weld is created by first applying pressure on the

two parts to be joined.
Once the correct amount of pressure is applied, current

is passed between the two (or more) overlapped sheets.
Resistive heating results in melting and the
formation of a weld nugget or a weld
seam.
On termination of the welding current, the
weld cools rapidly under the influence of the
chilled electrodes.
This causes the nugget to resolidify, joining

the two sheets of metal.
Advantages of Resistance Welding
High welding rates
Low fumes
Cost effectiveness
Easy automation
No filler materials are required
Low distortions.
Disadvantages of Resistance Welding
High equipment cost
Low strength of discontinuous welds
Thickness of welded sheets is limited - up to

6mm
The most popular methods of Resistance Welding are
Spot Welding
Flash Welding
Resistance Butt Welding
Seam Welding
Spot Welding (RSW)
Spot Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in
which two or more overlapped metal sheets are joined by
spot welds.
The method uses pointed copper electrodes providing

passage of electric current.
The electrodes also transmit pressure required for formation

of strong weld.
Diameter of the weld spot is in the range 3 - 12
mm
Spot welding is widely used in automotive

industry for joining vehicle body part
Seam Welding
Seam Welding is a Resistance Welding process of
continuous joining of overlapping sheets by passing
them between two rotating electrode wheels.
Heat generated by the electric current flowing

through the contact area and pressure provided by the
wheels are sufficient to produce a leak-tight weld.
Seam Welding is high speed and clean process,
which is used when continuous tight weld is
required (fuel tanks, drums, domestic
radiators).
Flash Welding (FW)
Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW) process, in

which ends of rods (tubes, sheets) are heated and fused by
an arc struck between them and then forged(brought into a
contact under a pressure) producing a weld.
The welded parts are held in electrode clamps, one of

which is stationary and the second is movable.
Flash Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.) joining of
large and complex parts
Welded part are often annealed for improvement of Toughness
Steels, Aluminium alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium
alloys, Copper alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by
Flash Welding.
Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft landing gears
are produced by Flash Welding.

Butt welding
In butt welding two pieces of metal of same cross-
section are gripped together and pressed while heat is
generated in contact surface by electric resistance
when current is passed.
As the pressure keeps on acting continuously, the

joint is upset slightly which can be rounded up by
machining.
In order to have good weld, first the pressure must be

less and increase steadily to a value sufficient of
effective weld
Butt welding
This process is best suited for rods, pipes and other
parts of uniform cross-sections
Butt welding can be sub divided into two groups
Upset butt welding
Flash butt welding

Butt welding
Upset butt welding
In this welding the parts to be welded are clamped

edge to edge in clamps of the machine and brought
together with solid contact while current flows
The pressure applied will upset the joint
Is used for non-ferrous metals

Upset butt welding
Flash butt welding
In flash butt welding the parts are brought together in
very light contact.
A high voltage starts a flashing action.
The parts keep moving against each other till forging

temperature is reached .
Then sufficient pressure is applied to effect the weld.
The pressure squeezes out any un wanted slag, oxides

and over heated metal from the joint faces .
Basic Steps in Flash Welding
(a)
Electrodes (c)
Position and (b)

Clamp the Parts (d)
Flash
Upset and Terminate Current

Apply Flashing Voltage
and Start Platen Motion
[Reference: Welding Handbook, Volume 2, p.583, AWS]
Flash butt welding
Usually large areas are welded by flash welding
This process requires less current
Most of the non-ferrous metals except containing

high percentage of lead ,zinc and copper are welded
by this method
Used for welding bars ,tubes etc

Percussion welding
This welding depends on the arc effect for heating
and not resistance
One of the two pieces to be welded is held in a

stationery holder and the other in a clamp
mounted in a slide and backed up by heavy spring
pressure
For welding the movable clamp is released

Percussion welding
When pieces are close to each other a sudden
discharge of electric energy takes place causing an
intense arcing over the surface and heating them
As piece come in contact with each other under heavy

pressure the arc is extinguished due to the percussion
blow of the two parts and the force between them
effects the weld
Percussion welding
The action of the process is so rapid that there is little
heating effect the material adjacent to the weld
It is used for welding tips of tools

Solidstate welding
Welding processes that involve solid
phase joining of metals.Metals are
not melted in these types of welding
forge welding,
friction welding,
explosive welding,
ultrasonic welding
Forge welding
Forge weldingis asolid-state weldingprocess
[1]that joins two pieces ofmetalby heating
them to a high temperature and

thenhammeringthem together.
The process is one of the simplest methods of
joining metals and has been used since ancient
times.
Forge welding between similar materials is
caused by solid-state diffusion. This results in a
weld that consists of only the welded materials
without any fillers or bridging materials.
Forge welding between dissimilar materials is caused
by the formation of a lower melting
temperatureeutecticbetween the materials. Due to
this the weld is often stronger than the individual
metals.
The temperature required to forge weld is typically 50
to 90 percent of the melting temperature.Steelwelds
at a lower temperature thaniron. The metal may take
on a glossy or wet appearance at the welding
temperature. Care must be taken to avoid
overheating the metal to the point that it gives
offsparksfrom rapid oxidation (burning).
Applications
Shotgun manufacture
pattern-weldedblades
Friction Welding
The pressure applied may range from 4MPa for low
carbon steel and 450MPa for alloy steels
The total weld time that is taken in friction welding is

between 2 to 30 seconds
The edge cleaning is not a problem ,since the oxides

and contaminants present would easily be removed
during initial rubbing
Since joining takes place by diffusion rather than

melting ,even dissimilar metals can be joined
Friction Welding
The heat required for welding is obtained by friction
between the ends of the two parts to be joined
One part of the joint is rotated at high speed around

3000 revolutions per minute
The other part is axially aligned with the second one

and pressed tightly against it
The friction between the two parts raises the

temperature of both the ends
Friction Welding
The rotation of the part is stopped abruptly and the
pressure on the fixed part is increased so that joining
takes place
The machine for friction welding is similar to a centre

lathe
The major parameters in friction welding are the

rotational speed and the axial pressure applied
Friction Welding
Explosive welding
In explosive welding detonation of explosives is used
to accelerate apart to move towards the other part at a
fast rate ,so that impacts creates joint.
As the plates moves at high velocity and meets the

other plates with a massive impact ,very high stress
waves (the order of 1000MPa) created between the
plates ,which clear all oxides and scales present in the
interface and make a clean joint
Explosive welding
Generally ,low detonation velocity (2.4 to 3.6 km/s)
explosives are used.
The detonation velocity changes with the thickness of

the plate being welded.
Explosive welding
Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic welding is an technique whereby high

frequency ultrasonic vibrations are locally applied to
work pieces being held together under pressure to
create a weld.
It is commonly used for plastics, and especially for

joining dissimilar materials.
All ultrasonic welding systems are composed of the same basic
elements:
A press to put the two parts to be assembled under pressure
A nest or anvil where the parts are placed and allowing the high
frequency vibration to be directed to the interfaces
An ultrasonic stack composed of a converter orpiezoelectric
transducer, an optional booster and a sonotrode
Converter: Converts the electrical signal into a mechanical vibration
Booster: Modifies the amplitude of the vibration. It is also used in standard
systems to clamp the stack in the press.
Sonotrode: Applies the mechanical vibration to the parts to be welded.
An electronic ultrasonic generator delivering a high power AC signal
with frequency matching theresonancefrequency of the stack.
A controller controlling the movement of the press and the delivery of
the ultrasonic energy.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
Is an inert gas shielded arc welding process done with
non consumable electrodes
The main difference between TIG welding and this

process is that in AHW , the arc is obtained between
two tungsten electrode rather than b/w the tungsten
electrode and the work piece
The shielding gas used here is hydrogen which is

reactive in nature compared to argon
The hydrogen molecule (H2) ,when passing through an
electric arc , get dissociated into two hydrogen atoms (H)
The hydrogen atoms are highly reactive
They form hydrogen molecule and combine with

oxygen ,if present, to form water vapour and thus release
intense heat for necessary melting of joint
When hydrogen atom recombine near the work piece

surface, they generate a temperature of the order of
3000C .
Because of its reactivity, the atomic hydrogen is able
to break the oxides on the base metals and thus allow
the formation of a clean weld
The path of the electron travel between the two

electrodes is not a straight path as in other arc
welding process
Instead they have form an arc shape

This because the hydrogen atom formed by the arc
causes a downward force because of which ,the
electron flow is slightly deviated
This fan shape can be changed by altering the

distance b/w the electrodes
Thermit welding
The heat source utilized for fusion in thermit
welding is the exothermic reaction of the
thermit mixture
A typical thermit mixture for welding steels is

aluminum and iron oxide
When the thermit mixture is brought to its

ignition temperature of 1200C ,the thermit
reaction starts
Thermit welding
Aluminum has great affinity towards oxygen and as a
result, it reduces the ferric oxide to liberate iron releasing
heat
3 Fe3O4 + 8 Al 9Fe +4Al2O3 + 3.01MJ/mol

The temperature reached is of the order of 3000C
The enormous amount of heat liberated ,melts

both the iron and aluminum oxide to a fluid state
Thermit welding
Because of the large difference in densities,
aluminium oxide would be floating on the top with
the molten steel settling below
Once started ,the reaction continues till all the thermit

mixture in the reaction vessel is completely reduced.
The heat releases during the operation is of the order

of 35Kj/Kg of the thermit
Thermit welding
The complete reaction takes place in a total of 1 min,
irrespective of the amount of thermit mixture present
in the crucible
The thermit welding process is essentially a casting

process where the molten metal obtained by the
thermit reaction is poured into the cavity made
around the joint.
The igniting mixture is normally barium peroxide or

magnesium.(usually placed at the top of the thermit)
Thermit welding
Thermit welding
Advantages of Thermit Welding
No external power source is required (heat of

chemical reaction is utilized)
Very large heavy section parts may be joined.

Electron beam welding
The welding is often done in conditions of
a vacuum to prevent dispersion of the electron beam.
The cathode within the electron gun is the source of

electrons
These electrons are accelerated towards the anode

because of large potential difference exists between
them
The electron beam is focused by means of an electro
magnetic lens .
Defects in welding
The defects in the weld can be defined as irregularities in
the weld metal produced due to incorrect welding
parameters or wrong welding procedures or wrong
combination of filler metal and parent metal.
Defects may be on the surface or inside the weld metal.
Welding defects may result into the failure of

components under service condition, leading to serious
accidents and causing the loss of property
Defects in welding
The major defects in welding are
crack
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Lack of Fusion and Inadequate or incomplete
penetration
Defects in welding
Crack
Cracks may be of micro or macro size and may appear in
the weld metal or base metal
Different categories of cracks are longitudinal cracks,

transverse cracks or radiating/star cracks and cracks in
the weld crater.
Cracks occur when localized stresses exceed the ultimate

tensile strength of material
These stresses are developed due to shrinkage during

solidification of weld metal.
Defects in welding
Crack
Cracks may be developed due to poor ductility of
base metal, high sulpher and carbon contents, high
arc travel speeds
Defects in welding
Porosity
Porosity results when the gases are entrapped in the
solidifying weld metal.
These gases are generated from the flux or coating

constituents of the electrode or shielding gases used
during welding or from absorbed moisture in the
coating.
Rust, dust, oil and grease present on the surface of

work pieces or on electrodes are also source of gases
during welding.
Defects in welding
Porosity may be easily prevented if work pieces are
properly cleaned from rust, dust, oil and grease
Defects in welding
porosity can also be controlled if excessively
high welding currents, faster welding speeds
and long arc lengths are avoided
Defects in welding
Solid Inclusion
Solid inclusions may be in the form of slag or any

other nonmetallic material entrapped in the weld
metal as these may not able to float on the surface of
the solidifying weld metal.
If the molten weld metal has high viscosity or too low

temperature or cools rapidly then the slag may not be
released from the weld pool and may cause inclusion.
Defects in welding
Solid Inclusion
Slag inclusion can be prevented if proper groove is
selected, all the slag from the previously deposited
bead is removed, too high or too low welding currents
and long arcs are avoided.
Defects in welding
penetration
Lack of fusion is the failure to fuse
together either the base metal and
weld metal or subsequent beads in
multi pass welding
because of failure to raise the
temperature of base metal or
previously deposited weld layer to
melting point during welding
Defects in welding
penetration
Lack of fusion can be avoided by properly cleaning

of surfaces to be welded, selecting proper current,
proper welding technique and correct size of
electrode.
Defects in welding
penetration
Incomplete penetration means that the weld depth is
not upto the desired level or root faces have not
reached to melting point in a groove joint.
If either low currents or larger arc lengths or large

root face or small root gap or too narrow groove
angles are used then it results into poor penetration.
Testing and Inspection of weld
Visual inspection
This is suited when appearance is the criterion of

checking quality of weld
It is used when welds not require high physical

strength
Magnetic particle inspection
It is used to check surface flaws in materials which

can be magnetized
The surface of inspection is coated with a liquid

solution containing very tiny colored magnetic
particles
And is then subjected to magnetic field created by

passing current through it
Any lack of continuity at or near the surface on
magnetization creates a local north south magnetic
pole , and attracts the metallic particles in the solution
On removal of magnetic field the flaws are detected

by concentrations of magnetic particles
Liquid penetration inspection
This method is used to detect surface flaw in all types

of metals
A fluorescent liquid is applied to the surface to be

inspected , and allowed to penetrate for sometime (3-
10 minutes).
The liquid is removed with a cleaner and surface is

dried
A backlight source is brought up to the surface
so that where fluorescence liquid has
penetrated will show up clearly.
Ultrasonic inspection
It can detect surface as well as internal flaws
Ultrasonic waves are passed from a transmitter- receiver

unit through the metal for 1-3 micro-seconds and then
selected waves from back surface and flaw surfaces are
received back and listened by the same unit
This action is repeated 0.5 to 5 million times per second

Each waves are visually represented on an
oscilloscope which is calibrated to show the distance
b/w searching unit
X-ray inspection
X-ray can pass through any material and reproduce

their images clearly showing any internal flaws , on
film
X-ray inspection equipment selection is depend upon

the kind of material to be tested and its thickness
geometry and access
Eddy current inspection
In this method an a.c coil is brought up close to the

conductive metal to be tested so as to induce eddy
current in it
These eddy current produce their own magnetic which

opposes the field of the a.c coil, increasing the
impedance of a.c coil which can be measured and
provides alarm to indicate presence of flaw in metal
Testing welds for leakage by testing tanks / vessels
In this method carbon dioxide is pressurized and a

soap and water solution is put on the outside of each
weld.
Leaks are indicated in the form of bubbles

Helium leak detector
Ahelium mass spectrometeris an
instrument commonly used to detect and
locate small leaks.
It typically uses avacuum chamberin
which a sealed container filled with helium
is placed.
Helium leaks out of the container, and the
rate of the leak is detected by a
mass spectrometer.
Destructive welding tests
1. Macro Etch Testing This method of
testing typically involves the removal of
small samples of the welded joint.
. These samples are polished across their
cross-section and then etched using some
type of mild acid mixture, dependent on
the base material used.
. The acid etch provides a clear visual
appearance of the internal structure of the
weld.
Fillet Weld Break Test This type of testing
involves breaking a sample fillet weld that is
welded on one side only.
The sample has load applied to its unwelded
side, transverse to the weld and directed to
its unwelded side (typically in a press).
The load is increased until the weld has
failed. The failed sample is then inspected to
establish the presence and extent of any
welding discontinuities.
http://uplokimedia.org/wikipedia/com
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia
/commons/3/3e/Fillet_Weld_Notation.p
mons/3/3e/Fillet_Weld_Notation.png
ng
Transverse tension test-
Tensile strength of the welded joint is
obtained by pulling specimens to
failure. Tensile strength is determined
by dividing the maximum load
required during testing by the cross-
sectional area. The result will be in
units of tension per cross-sectional
area.
Guided Bend Test This is a test
method in which a specimen is bent
to a specified bend radius. Various
types of bend tests are used to
evaluate the ductility and soundness
of welded joints. Guided bend tests
are usually taken transverse to the
weld axis and may be bent in plunger
type test machines or in wrap-around
bend test jigs.
METALLURGY OF WELDING
Welded joints
Butt Welds
Butt welds are welds where two
pieces of metal are to be joined are
in the same plane.
These types of welds require only
some preparation and are used with
thin sheet metals that can be welded
with a single pass.
Common issues that can weaken a
butt weld are the entrapment of slag,
excessive porosity, or cracking.
Square butts
The square-groove is a butt welding joint
with the two pieces being flat and parallel
to each other.
This joint is simple to prepare, economical
to use, and provides satisfactory strength,
but is limited by joint thickness.
The closed square butt weld is a type of
square-groove joint with no spacing in
between the pieces. This joint type is
common with gas and arc welding.
V-Joints(Butt)
Single-V butt welds are similar to a bevel joint, but instead of
only one side having the beveled edge, both sides of the
weld joint are beveled.
In thick metals, and when welding can be performed from
both sides of the work piece, a double-V joint is used. When
welding thicker metals,
a double-V joint requires less filler material because there
are two narrower V-joints compared to a wider single-V joint.
Also the double-V joint helps compensate for warping forces.
With a single-V joint, stress tends to warp the piece in one
direction when the V-joint is filled, but with a double-V-joint,
there are welds on both sides of the material, having
opposing stresses, straightening the material.
J-joints(butt)
Single-J butt welds are when one piece of the weld is in
the shape of a J that easily accepts filler material and
the other piece is square.
A J-groove is formed either with special cutting
machinery or by grinding the joint edge into the form of
a J.
Although a J-groove is more difficult and costly to
prepare than a V-groove, a single J-groove on metal
between a half an inch and three quarters of an inch
thick provides a stronger weld that requires less filler
material.
Double-J butt welds have one piece that has a J shape
from both directions and the other piece is square.
U joints (Butt)
Single-U butt welds are welds that have both
edges of the weld surface shaped like a J, but
once they come together, they form a U.
Double-U joints have a U formation on both
the top and bottom of the prepared joint.
U-joints are the most expensive edge to
prepare and weld.
They are usually used on thick base metals
where a V-groove would be at such an extreme
angle, that it would cost too much to fill.
Other butt joints
Thin sheet metals are often flanged to produce edge-
flange or corner-flange welds. These welds are typically
made without the addition of filler metal because the
flange melts and provides all the filler needed. Pipes and
tubing can be made from rolling and welding together
strips, sheets, or plates of material.
Flare-groove joints are used for welding metals that,
because of their shape, form a convenient groove for
welding, such as a pipe against a flat surface.
The Tee Weld is formed when two bars or sheets are
joined perpendicular to each other in the form of a T
shape. This weld is made from the resistance butt
welding process.
Lap joint
A lap joint is formed by overlapping two plates and welding them
either in the joint where they meet, as is done in GTAW and PAW,
or through the top plate and into the bottom plate.
This is usually done using either an electron beam or laser welder.
Lap joints can be used to weld pieces of dissimilar thicknesses
and materials.
Lap joints also greatly reduce the number of critical parameters
in the weld.
Unlike a butt weld, which performs a similar function, the lap
joint does not require that the cut faces be perfectly flat and
parallel.
Rather, in a lap joint, the only critical surfaces are the faces of
the parts where they overlap, and the tolerances on this overlap
are fairly high.
Corner joints
The fifth major type of welding
connection is the corner joint. As its
name implies, this joint is used to
connect two parts together to form a
corner.
This weld type is extremely useful
and can be preformed with either a
high or low energy density welder.
Edge joints
Edge welding joints, a groove type of weld,
are placed side by side and welded on the
same edge.
They are the most commonly replaced
type of joints due to build up accumulating
on the edges.
They are often applied to parts of sheet
metal that have edges flanging up or
formed at a place where a weld must be
made to join two adjacent pieces together.
Metallurgy of welding
In general, a weld can be divided in
four different zones
The fusion zone
The weld interface
The heat affected zone (HAZ)
The unaffected base metal zone
Fusion zone
The fusion zone (referred to as FZ) can be characterized
as a mixture of completely molten base metal (and filler
metal if consumable electrodes are in use) with high
degree of homogeneity where the mixing is primarily
motivated by convection in the molten weld pool.
The main driving forces for convective transport of heat
and resulting mixing of molten metal in weld pool are: (1)
buoyancy force, (2) surface tension gradient force, (3)
electromagnetic force, (4) friction force.
Similar to a casting process, the microstructure in the
weld fusion zone is expected to change significantly due
to remelting and solidification of metal at the
temperature beyond the effective liquidus temperature.
weld interface
The weld interface, which is also
referred to as mushy zone, is a
narrow zone consisting of partially
melted base material which has not
got an opportunity for mixing.
This zone separates the fusion zone
and heat affected zone
heat affected zone (HAZ)
The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the region that
experiences a peak temperature that is well below
the solidus temperature while high enough that can
change the microstructure of the material.
The amount of change in microstructure in HAZ
depends on the amount of heat input, peak temp
reached, time at the elevated temp, and the rate of
cooling.
As a result of the marked change in the
microstructure, the mechanical properties also
change in HAZ and, usually, this zone remains as
the weakest section in a weldment.
unaffected base metal zone
The unaffected base metal zone
surrounding the HAZ is likely to be in
a state of high residual stress, due to
the shrinkage in the fusion zone.
However, this zone does not
undergo any change in the
microstructure.

Module - 4 Welding

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Module - 4 Welding

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

WELDING

The result is a continuity of homogeneous material

The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic

Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding

The material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed

5. Solid State Welding

Heat for welding is obtained from the combustion of

The fuel gas generally used is acetylene because of

This process is called oxy acetylene welding

C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 +heat

This reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon

The secondary combustion process is

This reaction consists of burning of the hydrogen

The temperature developed as a result of these

Non return valve

Prepare the edges to be joined ,and establish and

Open the oxygen valve and adjust the flame for a

Touch the filler rod to the joint and control its

At a ratio of 1:1 that is, when no excess oxygen ,it is

The metal will flow together and form an integral

A filler metal is also added to the surface of the metal

The electric arc is produced between two conductors.

The electrode is one conductor and the work piece is

The electrode and the work piece are brought nearer

This protects the weld seam from rapid cooling.

A welding generator (D.C.) or Transformer (A.C.)

DC power supply is used.

The carbon electrode is connected to negative terminal and work

If carbon mixes with the weld, the weld will become

To protect the molten metal from the atmosphere the

In this case, a carbon monoxide gas is produced, which

Welding is performed with the heat of an electric arc

The slag covers the molten pool where it protects the

SMAW can be performed both on A C and D C

A hopper and a feeding mechanism are used to provide a

The molten flux surrounds the arc thus protecting arc

Since the arc is fully covered by the flux,it is not

SAW can be performed both on A C and D C source

Joints can be prepared with a shallow V groove resulting lesser

Weld spatter is eliminated and nearly 100% deposition is

High welding speed is possible

Wire electrodes are inexpensive

Entire welding takes place beneath a bath of molten flux ,

It cant be used for plates less than 5mm thick

It cant weld cast iron because of high heat input

Slag cannot be removed continuously after it has

Flux subjected to contamination and adsorption of

The tungsten electrode and the weld pool are shielded

The tungsten arc process is being employed widely

Since the electrode is not consumed during the

The filler metal, when required, can be added directly

In TIG torch the electrode is extended beyond the

The arc is ignited by high voltage, high frequency

Weld composition is close to that of the parent

Slag removal is not required (no slag)

Thermal distortions of work pieces are minimal

Low welding rate

The "Metal" in Gas Metal Arc Welding refers to the

MIG welding process an arc is formed between the

During the MIG welding process, the electrode melts

The shielding gas also assists with stabilizing the arc

Provides a uniform weld bead.

Produces a slag-free weld bead.

Uses a shielding gas, usually argon, argon - 1 to 5%