The Cell Cycle and How Cells Divide

1
 Phases of the Cell Cycle
The cell cycle consists of
Interphase normal cell activity

The mitotic phase cell divsion

INTERPHASE

Growth
G1 (DNA synthesis)

Growth
n
io
vs

G2
Di
ll
Ce

2
 Functions of Cell Division

100 m 200 m 20 m

(a) Reproduction. An amoeba,
a single-celled eukaryote, is
dividing into two cells. Each
new cell will be an individual
organism (LM).
(b) Growth and development.
This micrograph shows a
sand dollar embryo shortly after
the fertilized egg divided, forming
two cells (LM).
(c) Tissue renewal. These dividing
bone marrow cells (arrow) will
give rise to new blood cells (LM).

3
 Cell Division

An integral part of the cell cycle

Results in genetically identical daughter cells
Cells duplicate their genetic material
Before they divide, ensuring that each daughter

cell receives an exact copy of the genetic

material, DNA

4
 Chromosomes
A diploid cell has two sets of each of its chromosomes
A human has 46 chromosomes (2n = 46)
In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred all the chromosomes are
duplicated and thus each consists of two identical sister chromatids

Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosome
Centromere

Two nonsister Pair of homologous

chromatids in chromosomes
a homologous pair (one from each set)

5
 Structure of Chromosomes
The centromere is a constricted region of the chromosome containing a
specific DNA sequence, to which is bound 2 discs of protein called
kinetochores.
Kinetochores serve as points of attachment for microtubules that move
the chromosomes during cell division:

Metaphase chromosome

Centromere
region of
chromosome Kinetochore
Kinetochore
microtubules

Sister Chromatids
6
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Phases of the Cell Cycle
Interphase
G1 - primary growth
S - genome replicated
G2 - secondary growth
M - mitosis
C - cytokinesis

7
 Interphase
G1 - Cells undergo majority of growth
S - Each chromosome replicates (Synthesizes) to
produce sister chromatids
Attached at centromere

Contains attachment site (kinetochore)

G2 - Chromosomes condense - Assemble

machinery for division such as centrioles

8
 Mitosis

Some haploid & diploid cells divide by mitosis.

Each new cell receives one copy of every

chromosome that was present in the original cell.

Produces 2 new cells that are both genetically

identical to the original cell.

DNA
duplication
during
interphase Mitosis

Diploid Cell

9
 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

G2 OF INTERPHASE PROPHASE PROMETAPHASE

Centrosomes Aster Fragments
(with centriole pairs) Chromatin Early mitotic Kinetochore
spindle Centromere of nuclear
(duplicated) Nonkinetochore
envelope
microtubules

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore

envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule
10
 Mitotic Division of an Animal Cell

METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS

Metaphase
plate Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow forming

Nuclear
envelope
Spindle Centrosome at Daughter forming
one spindle pole chromosomes
11
G2 of Interphase
A nuclear envelope bounds
the nucleus.
The nucleus contains one or
more nucleoli (singular,
nucleolus).
Two centrosomes have
formed by replication of a
single centrosome.
In animal cells, each G2 OF INTERPHASE
centrosome features two Centrosomes
centrioles. (with centriole pairs) Chromatin
Chromosomes, duplicated (duplicated)
during S phase, cannot be
seen individually because
they have not yet condensed.

The light micrographs show dividing lung cells

from a newt, which has 22 chromosomes in
its somatic cells (chromosomes appear blue,
microtubules green, intermediate filaments
red). For simplicity, the drawings show only
four chromosomes.
Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma
envelope membrane

12
Prophase
The chromatin fibers become
more tightly coiled, condensing
into discrete chromosomes
observable with a light
microscope.
The nucleoli disappear.
Each duplicated chromosome
appears as two identical sister
PROPHASE
chromatids joined together.
The mitotic spindle begins to form. Aster
Early mitotic
It is composed of the centrosomes spindle Centromere
and the microtubules that extend
from them. The radial arrays of
shorter microtubules that extend
from the centrosomes are called
asters (stars).
The centrosomes move away from
each other, apparently propelled
by the lengthening microtubules
between them.
Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
13
Metaphase
Metaphase is the longest stage of
mitosis, lasting about 20 minutes.
The centrosomes are now at
opposite ends of the cell.
The chromosomes convene on the
metaphase plate, an imaginary
METAPHASE
plane that is equidistant between
the spindles two poles. The Metaphase
plate
chromosomes centromeres lie on
the metaphase plate.
For each chromosome, the
kinetochores of the sister
chromatids are attached to
kinetochore microtubules coming
from opposite poles.
The entire apparatus of
microtubules is called the spindle
Spindle Centrosome at
because of its shape. one spindle pole

14
 The Mitotic Spindle
The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle
microtubules, and the asters
The apparatus of microtubules controls
chromosome movement during mitosis
The centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the
cell
Assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the
centrosome, the microtubule organizing center
An aster (a radial array of short microtubules)
extends from each centrosome

15
 The Mitotic Spindle
Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase
plate
In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the
kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell

Aster
Sister Centrosome
Microtubules Chromosomes chromatids Metaphase
plate
Kineto-
chores

Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules
Centrosome 1 m 0.5 m
16
Anaphase
Anaphase is the shortest stage of
mitosis, lasting only a few minutes.
Anaphase begins when the two sister
chromatids of each pair suddenly part.
Each chromatid thus becomes a full-
fledged chromosome.
The two liberated chromosomes begin
moving toward opposite ends of the cell, ANAPHASE
as their kinetochore microtubules
shorten. Because these microtubules are
attached at the centromere region, the
chromosomes move centromere first (at
about 1 m/min).
The cell elongates as the
nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen.
By the end of anaphase, the two ends of
the cell have equivalentand
completecollections of chromosomes.
Daughter
chromosomes

17
Telophase
Two daughter nuclei begin to
form in the cell.
Nuclear envelopes arise from
the fragments of the parent
cells nuclear envelope and TELOPHASE AND CYTOKINESIS
other portions of the
endomembrane system. Cleavage Nucleolus
furrow
The chromosomes become forming

less condensed.
Mitosis, the division of one
nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei, is now
complete. Nuclear
envelope
forming

18
 Cytokinesis
Cleavage of cell into two
halves
Animal cells

Constriction belt of

actin filaments
Plant cells

Cell plate

Fungi and protists

Mitosis occurs

within the nucleus

19
 Cytokinesis In Animal And Plant Cells

100 m
Cleavage furrow Vesicles Wall of 1 m
forming patent cell Cell plate
cell plate New cell wall

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (SEM)
20
 Meiosis
Formation of Gametes
(Eggs & Sperm)

21
21
 Facts About Meiosis
Preceded by interphase which
includes chromosome replication
Two meiotic divisions --- Meiosis
I and Meiosis II
Called Reduction- division
Original cell is diploid (2n)
Four daughter cells produced that
are monoploid (1n)
22
22
 Facts About Meiosis
Daughter cells contain half the
number of chromosomes as the
original cell
Produces gametes (eggs & sperm)
Occurs in the testes in males
(Spermatogenesis)
Occurs in the ovaries in females
(Oogenesis)
23
23
 More Meiosis Facts
Start
with 46 double stranded
chromosomes (2n)
After 1 division - 23 double stranded
chromosomes (n)
After 2nd division - 23 single stranded
chromosomes (n)
Occurs in our germ cells that produce

gametes
24
24
Why Do we Need Meiosis?
It is the fundamental basis of
sexual reproduction
Two haploid (1n) gametes are
brought together through
fertilization to form a diploid
(2n) zygote

25
25
Fertilization Putting it
all together
2n = 6

1n =3

26
26
 Replication of Chromosomes

Replication is the
process of
duplicating a Occurs in
chromosome Interphase

Occurs prior to
division

Replicated copies
are called sister
chromatids

Held together at
centromere
27
27
 A Replicated Chromosome

Gene X

Homologs Sister
(same genes, different Chromatids
alleles) (same genes,
same alleles)

Homologs separate in meiosis I and therefore different

alleles separate.
28
28
 Meiosis Forms Haploid Gametes

Meiosis must reduce the chromosome number by half

Fertilization then restores the 2n number

from mom from dad child

too
much!

meiosis reduces
genetic content
The right
number!
29
29
 Meiosis: Two Part Cell
Division
Sister
chromatids
Homologs separate
separate

Meiosis Meiosis
I II

Diploid
Diploid
Haploid30
30
 Meiosis I: Reduction Division

Nucleus Spindle
fibers Nuclear
Early Prophase envelope
I Late Metaphase I
(Chromosome Prophase I Anaphase I Telophase I
number (diploid)
doubled)
31
31
 Prophase I

Early prophase Late prophase

Homologs pair. Chromosomes condense.
Crossing over Spindle forms.
occurs. Nuclear envelope fragments.
32
32
Tetrads Form in Prophase I

Homologous chromosomes Join to form a

(each with sister chromatids) TETRAD

Called Synapsis 33
33
 Crossing-Over
Homologous
chromosomes in
a tetrad cross
over each other
Pieces of
chromosomes or
genes are
exchanged
Produces
Genetic
recombination in
the offspring
34
34
Homologous Chromosomes
During Crossing-Over

35
35
 Crossing-Over

Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number

of different gamete types produced by independent
36
assortment 36
Metaphase I

Homologous pairs of
chromosomes align
along the equator of
the cell

37
37
Anaphase I

Homologs separate and move

to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain

attached at their centromeres.

38
Telophase I

Nuclear envelopes reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into

two.

39
39
 Meiosis II
Only one homolog of each
Gene X
chromosome is present in
the cell.
cell
Sister chromatids carry
identical genetic
information.

Meiosis II produces gametes with

one copy of each chromosome and thus one
copy of each gene.
40
40
 Meiosis II: Reducing
Chromosome Number

Prophase II Metaphase II
Telophase II
Anaphase II 4 Identical
haploid cells
41
41
Prophase II

Nuclear envelope
fragments.

Spindle forms.

42
42
Metaphase II

Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

43
43
 Anaphase II
Equator

Pole

Sister chromatids
separate and move to
opposite poles.

44
44
Telophase II
Nuclear envelope
assembles.

Chromosomes
decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell

into two. 45
45
Results of Meiosis
Gametes (egg & sperm) form

Four haploid cells with one

copy of each chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of
alleles for different genes
along the chromosome

46
46