You cross a strain of Drosophila that has red eyes and a normal wings to a strain that

has white eyes and a deformed wings. All the F1 progeny have red eyes and normal
wings. You observe F2 flies with the following phenotypes:

226 red eyes, normal wings;

77 white eyes, normal wings;
73 red eyes, deformed wings;
24 white eyes, deformed wings;

Use a test to determine:

Whether the eye color and wing shape loci independently
assort

A. Reject null hypothesis

B. Fail to reject null hypothesis

1
 Population
genetics
Textbook: Chapter 25: 1-8

Concepts:

Calculate allele frequencies from genotype or phenotype

frequencies

Calculate genotype or phenotype frequencies from allele

frequencies

Describe the conditions required for Hardy-Weinberg

equilibrium

Use the test to determine whether a population is in

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium 2
Chromosome segregation at
meiosis is sometimes
non-random
cy

Cy

3
Non-random segregation
produces non-Mendelian
progeny ratios
fr(Cy) = 0.5 fr(cy) = 0.5

fr(Cy/Cy) = fr(Cy/cy) =
fr(Cy) = 0.8 0.4 0.4

fr(cy/cy) = fr(cy/cy) =
fr(cy) = 0.2 0.1 0.1

4
 Chromosome segregation at
meiosis is sometimes
non-random

Segregation distorter
alleles get into more than
50% of the gametes of a
heterozygote

5
 Chromosome segregation at
meiosis is sometimes
non-random

Segregation distorters
that act in oogenesis are
often centromeres

6
 Chromosome segregation at
meiosis is sometimes
non-random

Segregation distorters
that act in
spermatogenesis are
often sperm-killers

XX
7
 Mendel used
crosses
Homologous alleles segregate in meiosis

Genes on non-homologous chromosomes

assort independently

8
 Organisms exist in
populations
What happens to alleles in populations through time?

9
 Population
genetics
A population is a group of potentially
interbreeding individuals from the same species

Population genetics describes the behavior of

alleles in populations

10
 Populations are genetically
variable
Populations carry multiple alleles at many loci
A1, A2, A3, A4 ; B1, B2, B3, B4

Individuals are heterozygous at many loci

11
 Populations are genetically
variable
Populations can be described with both allele frequencies
and genotype frequencies

A alleles: 12/24 = 0.5 AA

Aa AA
a alleles: 12/24 = 0.5
Aa
aa Aa aa
AA genotypes: 3/12 = 0.25 Aa
Aa genotypes: 6/12 = 0.5 Aa aa
Aa AA
aa genotypes: 3/12 = 0.25
12 diploid individuals
24 alleles
12
Counting allele frequencies from
genotypes
C-C chemokine receptor-5 gene in humans has
two alleles: 1 and 32

13
Counting allele frequencies from
genotypes
C-C chemokine receptor-5 gene in humans has
two alleles: 1 and 32

14
How are alleles combined into
genotypes?
population 1 population 2

aa AA AA Aa
Aa Aa Aa
AA aa
Aa
AA aa Aa
aa AA
Aa Aa Aa
aa Aa

p = f(A) = 0.5 p = f(A) = 0.5

q = f(a) = 0.5 q = f(a) = 0.5

15
How are alleles combined into
genotypes?
population 1 population 2

aa AA AA Aa
Aa Aa Aa
AA aa
Aa
AA aa Aa
aa AA
Aa Aa Aa
aa Aa

p = f(A) = 0.5 p = f(A) = 0.5

q = f(a) = 0.5 q = f(a) = 0.5

You cannot determine genotype

frequencies solely from allele
frequencies! 16
 Mendelian Punnett
square
In a cross, offspring genotypes are determined by
the gametes each parent makes

Aa x Aa

fr(A) = 0.5 fr(a) = 0.5

fr(AA) = fr(Aa) =
fr(A) = 0.5 0.25 0.25

fr(aA) = fr(aa) =
fr(a) = 0.5 0.25 0.25

17
 Population Punnett
square
If gametes are chosen randomly then offspring genotypes
are determined by the population allele frequencies in
the parental generation
A A
A A A Aa A A
a a
A A
a A A aAA a

18
Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium

19
 Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium
If a population is large
individuals mate randomly
no forces act to change allele frequencies
(such as mutation, migration, selection)

Then:
Allele frequencies (p & q) will not change
over time

Genotype frequencies:
AA = p2
Aa = 2pq
aa = q2
20
 Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium
HWE describes how alleles are combined into genotypes

population 1 population 2

aa AA AA p2 = 0.25 Aa
Aa Aa Aa
AA aa
aa 2pq = 0.5 Aa
Aa
AA q2 = 0.25
aa AA
Aa Aa Aa
aa Aa

f(AA) = 0.5 f(AA) = 0

f(Aa) = 0 f(Aa) = 1
f(aa) = 0.5 f(aa) = 0
21
 Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium
HWE describes how alleles are combined into genotypes

population 1

aa AA AA p2 = 0.25 Aa Aa
AA aa Aa
2pq = 0.5 Aa Aa
AA aa Aa Aa
AA q2 = 0.25
aa Aa Aa
aa Aa

f(AA) = 0.25
f(Aa) = 0.5
f(aa) = 0.25
22
Calculate allele frequencies from
genotypes
Counting alleles from the observed number of
individuals with a trait caused by a recessive allele:

Incidence of cystic fibrosis = 1/2500

(0.0004) in Northern Europe

Assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

What is the frequency of the disease allele?
What is the frequency of carrier
individuals?

23
Calculate allele frequencies from
genotypes
Counting alleles from the observed number of
individuals with a trait caused by a recessive allele:

Incidence of cystic fibrosis = 1/2500

(0.0004) in Northern Europe

Assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

What is the frequency of the disease allele?
What is the frequency of carrier
individuals?

q2 = 0.0004 q = 0.02 2pq = 0.0392

Freq of disease Freq of disease allele Freq of carriers

24
 Next
class
Read Chapter 25 sections 4-8

Suggested practice problems:

Chapter 25: 7, 8, 10, 11

25