Angular momentum in quantum

mechanics
Classical definition of angular momentum

Linear Hermitian Operators for angular momentum

Commutation relations
Physical consequences

Simultaneous eigenfunctions of total angular

momentum and the z-component
Vector model

Spherical harmonics
Orthonormality and completeness
 Classical angular momentum
For a classical particle, the angular momentum is
defined by L
L rp
p
Lx i Ly j Lz k
r
In components F
Lx ypz zp y
Ly zpx xpz
Same origin for r and F
Lz xp y ypx

Angular momentum is very important in problems dL d dr dp

(r p) p r
involving a central force (one that is always dt dt dt dt
directed towards or away from a central point) p
because in that case it is conserved ( p) (r F ) 0.
m
 Hermitian operators for quantum
angular momentum
In quantum mechanics we get linear
Hermitian angular momentum
r r r , p p ih
operators from the classical expressions
using the postulates
L r p L ihr

Lx ih y z
Lx ypz zp y Lx yp z zp y z y

Ly zpx xpz L y zp x xp z
L y i h z x
x z
Lz xp y ypx Lz xp y yp x

Lz ih x y
y x
 Commutation relations
The different components of angular momentum
Lx , L y ihLz
do not commute with one another, e.g.
Proof: Lx , L y L x L y L y L x

Lx yp z zp y
L y zp x xp z
Lz xp y yp x
[ x, p x ] i h
[ y, p y ] ih
[ z , pz ] i h

Similar arguments give the L , L ihL Lz , Lx ihL y

cyclic permutations y z x

Summarize these as Li , L j ihLk where i, j, k obey a

cyclic (x, y, z) relation
 Commutation relations (2)
The different components of L do not commute with
each another, but they do commute with the squared L2 L2x L2y L2z
magnitude of the angular momentum vector:

Proof: Lx , L2

Similar proofs for the other components

Lx , L2 L y , L2 L z , L2 0

 Commutation relations (3)
The different components of angular momentum do not commute
Lx, Ly and Lz are not compatible observables
They do not have simultaneous eigenfunctions (except when L = 0)
We can not have perfect knowledge of any pair at the same time

BUT, the different components all commute with L2

L2 and each component are compatible observables
We can find simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and one component

CONCLUSION
We can find simultaneous eigenfunctions of one Lz h
component of angular momentum and L2 .
Conventionally we chose the z component. Next step is L2 h2
to find these eigenfunctions and study their properties.

What determines the direction of the z-axis?

In an experiment we usually have one or more privileged directions (e.g. the
direction of an external electric or magnetic field) which gives a natural z axis.
If not, this direction is purely arbitrary and no physical consequences depend
on what choice we make.
 Angular momentum in
spherical polar coordinates
z
Spherical polar coordinates are the natural coordinate system
in which to describe angular momentum: x, y , z r , ,
r y
The angular momentum operators only depend on the angles
and and not on the radial coordinate r.
cos
Lx ih sin x
Lx ih y z
z y tan
sin x r sin cos
L y ih z x L y ih cos
x z
tan

y r sin sin
Lz ih x y
y x Lz ih z r cos

1 1 2

L L L L h
2 2 2 2 2
sin 2

x y z
sin sin 2

Note: The angular momentum operators commute with any operator which only depends on r.
L2 is closely related to the angular part of the Laplacian 1 2 L2
(see 2B72 and Section 6). 2 r 2 2
2

r r r hr
 Lz in spherical polars x r sin cos
y r sin sin
Proof that
Lz ih z r cos


Lz ih x y
x y z y x

x y z

x
x r sin cos r sin sin y

y
y r sin sin r sin cos x

z
z r cos 0

i
y x Lz
x y h
 Eigenfunctions of Lz
Look for simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz

First find the eigenvalues and

eigenfunctions of Lz. Can only
Lz h Lz ih


depend on the angle
ih h

A exp i
2
1
2
Normalize
solution
d
0

A* exp i A exp i A
2 2

2
1
d 2 A 1
2 2
A A
0 2
1
exp i
2
 Eigenfunctions of Lz (2)
Boundary condition: wave-function must be single-valued 1
exp i
( 2 ) ( ) 2

exp i exp i exp 2 i

exp 2 i 1
m 0, 1, 2, 3K

The angular momentum about the z-axis is Lz mh

quantized in units of hbar (compare Bohr model).
The possible results of a measurement of Lz are m integer

So the eigenvalue equation and eigenfunction solution for Lz are

1
Lz m mh m m exp im
2
 Orthonormality and
completeness
2
Lz is a Hermitian operator. Its eigenfunctions are
orthonormal and complete for all functions of the angle
that are periodic when increases by 2.

Orthonormality

2 2
1
0 m n d 2 exp i n m d
*
mn
0

Completeness 1
m exp im
a
m
m m 2
2
am m d
*

0
 Eigenfunctions of L2
Now look for eigenfunctions of L2 L2 f , h2 f ,

2 1 1 2
L h sin 2
2
2
sin sin
Try a separated solution of the form
1
f ( , ) ( )( ) exp(im )( )
2
(this ensures the solutions remain eigenfunctions of Lz)

Eigenvalue equation is

L2 exp(im )( ) h2 exp(im )( )

We get the equation for m() which depends on both and m

1 1
sin sin m 2
m 0
sin
2

 Eigenfunctions of L2 (2)
Make the substitution 1 1
m 0
2
sin sin m
d sin 2

cos sin
d

This gives the Legendre equation, solved in 2B72 by the Frobenius method.

d d m m2
1 m 0
2

1
2

We need solutions that are finite at = 1 (i.e. at = 0 and = since =

cos). This is only possible if satisfies

l (l 1) where l 0,1, 2,K and l m

This is like the SHO where we found restrictions on the energy

eigenvalue in order to produce normalizable solutions.
 Eigenfunctions of L2 (3)
Label solutions to the Legendre equation by the values of l and m

m lm d 2 d lm
m2
1 l l 1 lm 0
l (l 1) 1 2

For m = 0 the finite solutions are the Legendre polynomials

P0 1
l ,m 0 Pl Pl cos
P1
1
P2
2
3 2 1

For non-zero m the solutions are the associated Legendre polynomials

m
lm Pl m
Pl cos
m d
Pl m ( ) (1 2 ) m / 2 Pl ( )
d
Note that these only depend on the size of m not on its sign
 Eigenvalues of L2
So the eigenvalues of L2 for physically allowed solutions are

h2 l (l 1)h2 , where l 0,1, 2,K and l m

The possible results for the measurement of the squared magnitude of the
angular momentum are L2 h2 l (l 1) h2
The possible results for a measurement of the magnitude of the angular
momentum are
L l (l 1)h

From l m we get l m l
For each l there are 2l+1 possible integer values of m

The restriction on the possible values of m is reasonable. The z-component

of angular momentum can not be greater than the total!
In fact, unless l = 0, the z-component is always less than the total and can
never be equal to it. Why?
 Summary
The simultaneous eigenfunctions
of Lz and L2 are f ( , ) Pl m cos exp im

Eigenvalues of L2 are l (l 1) h2 , with l 0,1, 2,K

The integer l is known as the principal angular momentum quantum

number. It determines the magnitude of the angular momentum

Eigenvalues of Lz are mh, with l m l

(i.e. m l , l 1K , 1, 0,1,K l 1, l )

The integer m is known as the magnetic quantum number. It

determines the z-component of angular momentum. For each
value of l there are 2l+1 possible values of m.

The simultaneous eigenfunctions of L2 and Lz do not correspond to definite values

of Lx and Ly, because these operators do not commute with Lz. We can show,
however, that the expectation value of Lx and Ly is zero for the functions f(,).