Wolkite University

College of Computing and Informatics

Department of Computer Science
Logic in Computer Science Group Assignment
Section C
Group 8
Name: Id:
1. Aman Hassen CIR//07
2. Jiregna Admasu CIR/272/07
3. Meron Fikadu CIR/329/07
4. Meron Rufael CIR/554/07
5. Terefe Birhanu CIR/453/07
6. Getabefikadu Temesgen CIR/212/07
 Probabilistic logic
Logic traditionally concerns matters immutable, necessary and
certain, while probability concerns the uncertain, the random,
and the capricious.
If the premises of a valid argument are all certain, then so is
the conclusion. Suppose, on the other hand, that the premises
are not all certain, but probable to various degrees; can we
then put bounds on the probability of the conclusion? Or
suppose that we want the probability of the conclusion of a
given valid argument to be above a particular threshold; how
probable, then, must the premises be?
 Cont..
The aim of a probabilistic logic aka probability
logic/probabilistic reasoning is to combine the capacity of
probability theory to handle uncertainty with the capacity of
deductive logic to exploit structure of formal argument.
Probabilistic logics attempt to find a natural extension of
traditional logic truth tables: the results they define are derived
through probabilistic expressions instead.
 Cont..
A difficulty with probabilistic logics is that they tend to
multiply the computational complexities of their probabilistic
and logical components.
In a semantical generalization of ordinary first-order logic the
truth values of sentences can range between 0 and 1.
The truth value of a sentence in probabilistic logic is taken to
be the probability of that sentence in ordinary first-order logic.

We make precise the notion of the probability of a sentence

through a possible worlds analysis.
 1. Probabilities on Possible Worlds
A sentence S can be either true or false if we were concerned
about just the one sentence S, we could imagine two sets of
possible worlds one, say Wl, containing worlds in which S was
true and one, say W2, containing worlds in which S was false.
The actual world, the world we are actually in, must be in one
of these two sets, but we might now know which one.
We can model our uncertainty about the actual world by
imagining that it is in Wl, with probability Pl, and is in W2
with some probability P2 = 1 - Pl In this sense we can say that
the probability of S (being true) is p1.
 Cont..
Consider the sentence The sky is blue". Clearly we have (by
common experience) that The sky is necessarily blue" is false
(sunsets?) and The sky is possibly blue" is true.
So, there are situations or possible worlds in which The sky
is blue" is true, and some in which it is false.
If we have more sentences, we have more sets of possible
worlds. Sentences may be true in some worlds and false in
others in different combinations.
 Cont..
Each set contains worlds with a unique and consistent set of
truth values for the sentences. If we have L sentences, we might
have as many as 2 L sets of possible worlds.
Typically though, we will have fewer than this maximum
number because some combinations of true and false values for
our L sentences will be logically inconsistent.
We cannot, for example, imagine a world in which S1 is false,
S2 is true and S1 ^ S2 is true. That is, some sets of the 2 L
worlds might contain only impossible worlds. As an example,
consider the sentences P, Q, P Q
The consistent sets of truth values for these two sentences are
given by the columns in the following table:
 Cont..
P Q PQ
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T

In this case, there are four sets of possible worlds each

one corresponding to one of these four sets of truth
values.
 2. Probabilities on Proofs
To dene probabilities on proofs, there are at least two
different options. They correspond to the approaches taken in
stochastic logic programs and PRISMs. .
Consider therefore the stochastic context free grammar, where
we have omitted many of the terminal symbols for brevity.
This context-free grammar is stochastic in that every grammar
rule has a probability associated to it
 FIRST ORDER PROBABILISTIC LOGICS

By now, everything is in place to introduce the key

representational frameworks that combine probabilistic
reasoning with logical or relational representations.
In the spirit of the above presentation, we can distinguish them
according to whether they dene probabilities on
interpretations or on proofs.
 Probabilistic Logical Models
The rst class of representations extends Bayesian networks
with abilities to dene probabilities on rst order logical or
relational interpretations.
 Probabilistic logic programs
Probabilistic logic programs are logic programs in which some
of the facts are annotated with probabilities.