Polynomial Function

A polynomial function P is given by

P( x)  an x n  an 1 x n 1  ...  a2 x 2  a1 x  a0 ,
where the coefficients an, an - 1, …, a1, a0 are real numbers and the exponents are whole
numbers.

Polynomial Function Degree Example

Constant 0 f(x) = 4
Linear 1 f(x) = 3x + 1
Quadratic 2 f(x) = 4x2  x + 9
Cubic 3 f(x) = x3 +2x2  x + 11
Quartic 4 f(x) = x4  3.2x3 + 0.1x
The Leading-Term Test
 Example

• Using the leading term-test, match each of the following

functions with one of the graphs AD, which follow.

A) f ( x)  3 x 4  2 x 3  3

B) f ( x)  5 x 3  x 2  4 x  2

C) f ( x)  x 5  14 x  1

D) f ( x)   x 6  x5  4 x3
 Solution

Leading Term Degree of Leading Sign of Leading Graph

Term Coeff.

3x4 Even Positive D

5x3 Odd Negative B

x5 Odd Positive A

x6 Even Negative C

 Graphing Polynomial Functions
• If P(x) is a polynomial function of degree n, the graph of the function has:

 at most n real zeros, and thus at most n x-intercepts;

 at most n  1 turning points.

(Turning points on a graph, also called relative maxima and minima, occur
when the function changes from decreasing to increasing or from increasing
to decreasing.)
Steps to Graph a Polynomial Function
1. Use the leading-term test to determine the end behavior.
2. Find the zeros of the function by solving f(x) = 0. Any real zeros are the
first coordinates of the x-intercepts.
3. Use the x-intercepts (zeros) to divide the x-axis into intervals and choose a
test point in each interval to determine the sign of all function values in
that interval.
4. Find f(0). This gives the y-intercept of the function.
5. If necessary, find additional function values to determine the general shape
of the graph and then draw the graph.
6. As a partial check, use the facts that the graph has at most n x-intercepts
and at most n  1 turning points.
 Example
Graph the polynomial function f(x) = 2x3 + x2  8x  4.

Solution:
1. The leading term is 2x3. The degree, 3, is odd, the coefficient, 2, is positive. Thus
the end behavior of the graph will appear as:

2. To find the zero, we solve f(x) = 0. Here we can use factoring by grouping.
 Example cont
Factor:
2 x3  x 2  8 x  4  0
x 2 (2 x  1)  4(2 x  1)  0
(2 x  1)( x 2  4)  0
(2 x  1)( x  2)( x  2)  0

The zeros are 1/2, 2, and 2. The x-intercepts are (2, 0),
(1/2, 0), and (2, 0).
3. The zeros divide the x-axis into four intervals:
(, 2), (2, 1/2), (1/2, 2), and (2, ).
We choose a test value for x from each interval and find f(x).
 Example cont
Interval Test Function Sign of f(x) Location of
Value, x value, f(x) points on graph

(, 2) 3 25  Below x-axis

(2, 1/2) 1 3 + Above x-axis
(1/2, 2) 1 9  Below x-axis
(2, ) 3 35 + Above x-axis

4. To determine the y-intercept, we find f(0):

f ( x)  2 x 3  x 2  8 x  4
f (0)  2(0)3  02  8(0)  4  4
The y-intercept is (0, 4).
 Example cont
5. We find a few additional points x f(x)
and complete the graph.
2.5 9

6. The degree of f is 3. The graph of 1.5 3.5

f can have at most 3 x-intercepts
1.5 7
and at most 2 turning points. It
has 3 x-intercepts and 2 turning
points. Each zero has a
multiplicity of 1; thus the graph
crosses the x-axis at 2, 1/2,
and 2. The graph has the end
behavior described in step (1).
The graph appears to be correct.
Example
 Intermediate Value Theorem
• For any polynomial function P(x) with real coefficients,
suppose that for a  b, P(a) and P(b) are of opposite signs.
Then the function has a real zero between a and b.

Example: Using the intermediate value theorem, determine,

if possible, whether the function has a real zero between a
and b.
a) f(x) = x3 + x2  8x; a = 4 b = 1
b) f(x) = x3 + x2  8x; a = 1 b=3
 Solution
We find f(a) and f(b) and determine f(1) = (1)3 + (1)2  8(1) = 6
where they differ in sign. The graph
of f(x) provides a visual check. f(3) = (3)3 + (3)2  8(3) = 12

f(4) = (4)3 + (4)2  8(4) By the intermediate value theorem,

= 16 since f(1) and f(3) have opposite
signs, then f(x) has a zero between
f(1) = (1)3 + (1)2  8(1) 1 and 3.
=8

By the intermediate value theorem,

since f(4) and f(1) have opposite
signs, then f(x) has a zero between 4
and 1.
 EXERCISE

Graph the polynomial functions in (A)

and (B)

A) f ( x)  x 3  x 2  4 x  4
B) f ( x)  x  4 x  3x
4 3 2