ESCI6000 Radar Equations

Radar Equations
Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Radar Equations
Outline
Basic Approach to Radar Equation Development
Solitary Target
Power incident on target
Power scattered back toward radar
Amount of power collected by the antenna
Distributed (Multiple) Targets
Distributed (Multiple) Weather Targets

Radar Equation Development
Basic Approach:
Radar Observation: Measurement of echo power received from a target provides useful
information about the target (# raindrops ~ reflectivity)
Radar Equation: Provides a relationship between the received power, the characteristics of
the target, and the unique characteristics of the antenna/radar design
Basic development is common to all radars!
Solitary Target: Develop radar equation for a single target (i.e., one raindrop)
1. Determine the transmitted power per unit area

(power flux density) incident on the target
2. Determine the power flux density scattered back
toward the radar
3. Determine the amount of back-scattered power
actually collected by the radar
Distributed Targets: Expand to allow for multiple targets with the volume

Transmitted Power
Isotropic Antenna:
An isotropic radar transmits power equally in all directions
Power flux density at a given range from an isotropic antenna is:
Pt
Siso (1)
4r 2
where S = power flux density (W/m2)

Pt = transmitted power (W/m2)
r = range from antenna

Transmitted Power
Directional Antenna:
Most radars attempt to focus all of the transmitted power into a narrow window (a beam)
This is NOT an easy task, but most radars come close
Gain Function:
Gain is the ratio of the power flux density at radius r, azimuth , and elevation for a
directional antenna to the power flux density for an isotropic antenna transmitting the
same total power:
S inc ( , )
G ( , )
S iso (2)
Combining (2) with (1):
GPt
S inc (3)
4r 2
In practice, it also incorporates absorptive losses by the antenna and waveguide
The gain function is unique for each radar!

Transmitted Power
What does the Gain Function look like?
3D Depiction
Main Lobe of Gain (dB)
Side Lobes

Transmitted Power
What does the Gain Function look like?
2D Depiction of Gain (dB)
Main lobe (i.e. the beam) has a maximum
gain of 30 dB
Strongest side lobes are ~4 dB with the
majority less than 0 dB
All back lobes are less than 0 dB
Effective beam width () defined at

the location equivalent to 3 dB less
than the peak gain on main lobe
(in this case at 27 dB = 6)
For the same total transmitted power,

a large peak Gain will correspond to
a narrow beam width desired

Transmitted Power
Relationship between Gain, Beam Width, Wavelength, and Antenna Size?
If the same antenna is used for both

transmitting and receiving, then the
antenna size is related to the Gain
(since the effective beam width is)
4Ae 10 cm
G (4)
2
Where: Ae = effective antenna area
= transmitting wavelength
Thus: Large antennas Large Gain

Small Beam Widths 0.8 cm
Large Wavelengths
Desired: Small beam widths

Small antennas
Large gain

Transmitted Power
Problems Associated with Side Lobes:
Echo from the side lobe is interpreted

as being from the main beam, but the
return power is weak because the
transmitted power was weak
Horizontal spreading of weaker echo

to sides of storm

Transmitted Power
Problems Associated with Side Lobes:
Echo from the side lobe is interpreted

as being from the main beam, but the
return power is weak because the
transmitted power was weak
Vertical spreading of weaker echo

to top of storm

Transmitted Power
Method to Minimize Side Lobes: Outgoing Power
Beam Geometry Flux Density
Use a parabolic antenna
Parabolic antennas allow for tapered illumination

which minimizes the transmitted power flux density
along the edges
Effects of Tapered Illumination:

1. Reduction of side lobe returns
2. Reduction of maximum Gain
3. Increased beam width
The last two are undesirable, but in practice

parabolic antennas reduce side lobes by ~80%,
reduce Gain by less than 5%, and increase beam
width by less than 25% acceptable compromise

Backscatter Power
Radar Cross Section:
Defined as the ratio of the power flux density

scattered by the target in the direction of the
antenna to the power flux density incident on
the target (both measured at the target radius)
Target Backscatter
S (r )
back Power Flux Density
S inc r (5)
PROBLEM: We dont measure Sback at r, Radar Transmitted

Power Flux Density
we measure it at the radar
For practical purposes, redefined as the

power flux density received at the radar:
Sr
4r 2 (6)
S inc

Backscatter Power
Radar Cross Section:
In general, the radar cross section

of a target depends on:
1. Targets shape
2. Targets size relative to

the radars wavelength
(more on this later )
3. Complex dielectric constant

and conductivity of the target
(more on this later)
4. Viewing aspect from the radar

Power Received at Antenna
GPt
S inc Power flux density
4r 2 incident on target
Sr
4r 2 Radar cross section
Sinc
GPt Power flux density

Sr of target backscatter
16 2 r 4 at the antenna
AeGPt
Pr S r Ae Ae is the effective antenna area (m 2)
16 2 r 4 Pr is the received power (W)

Power Received at Antenna
Bringing it all together
Recall from before:
AeGPt
Pr S r Ae (8) Power flux density
16 2 r 4 incident on target
4Ae
G (6)
Gain Antenna size
2 relationship
Substituting (6) into (8):
2G 2 Pt Radar equation for a single isolated target

Pr (9) (e.g. an airplane, ship, bird, one raindrop)
64 3 r 4
Lets rearrange and examine this equation in more detail

Radar Equation for a Solitary Target
Pr
1
64 3
PG
t
2 2
r 4
Constant Radar Target
Characteristics Characteristics
Written in terms of antenna effective area:
1 Pt Ae2
Pr 2 r 4
4
What do these equations tell us about radar returns from a single target?

Distributed Targets
Distributed Target:
A target consisting of many scattering elements, for example, the billions of raindrops
that might be illuminated by a single radar pulse
Contributing Region:
Volume containing all objects from which the scattered microwaves arrive back
at the radar simultaneously
Spherical shell centered on the radar

Radial extent determined by the pulse duration
Angular extent determined by the antenna beam pattern

Distributed Targets
Single Pulse Volume:
Azimuthal coordinate ()
Beam width in the azimuthal direction
is r, where is the arc length between
the half power points of the beam
Elevation coordinate ()
Beam width in the elevation direction
is r, where is the arc length between
the half power points of the beam
r r
Cross-sectional area of beam:
2 2
c h
Contributing volume length = half pulse length:
2 2
Volume of contributing region for a single pulse:
r r hr cr
2 2
h
Vc (10)
2 2 2 8 8

Distributed Targets
Single Pulse Volume: NEXRAD Radar
Pulse duration = 1.57 s

Angular circular beam width 0.0162 radians
Range from radar r = 100 km
cr 2 3.14 3.0 108 ms 1 1.57 10 6 s 105 m 0.0162

2 2
Vc
8 8
Vc 5.2 108 m 3
If the concentration of raindrops is the typical 1/m3, then the pulse volume contains:
520 million raindrops!!

Distributed Targets
Caveats to Consider:
The pulse volume is not a perfect cone

Recall the antenna beam (gain) pattern
About half the transmitted power

fall outside the 3 dB cone
The gain function is not uniform

with the cone targets along the
beam axis received more power
than those off axis

Distributed Targets
Radar Cross-Section: Assumptions
1)The radial extent (h/2) of the contributing region is small compared to the
range (r) so that the variation of Sinc across h/2 can be neglected
(good assumption)
2)Sinc is considered uniform across the conical beam and zero outside the spatial
variation of the gain function can be ignored.
(not good, but we are stuck with this one)
3)Scattering by other objects toward the contributing region must be small so that
interference effects with the incident wave do not modify its amplitude
(good for wavelengths > 3 cm)
4)Scattering or absorption of microwaves by objects between the radar and contributing

region do not modify the amplitude of Sinc appreciably
(good for wavelengths > 3 cm)

Distributed Targets
Radar Cross-Section:
Equal to the average radar cross for the random array of individual particles that
comprise the target (e.g. average radar cross section of 520 million drops)
j (11)
j
Recall radar equation for a single target:
Pr
1
64 3
PG
t
2 2
r4

Radar equation for a distributed target:
j
Pr
1
64 3
PG
t
2 2

j
r4

(12)


Distributed Targets
Radar Reflectivity (avg):
Since the radar cross-section is valid for all targets within the contributing volume,
and that volume is non-uniform (i.e. its a function of range and beam shape), we
need to account for this variability in each possible contributing volume:

j

Vc j
Vc avg (13)
Vc

Using (13) and the definition of the contributing volume (10), our radar equation
for a distributed target becomes:
avg
Pr
c
512 2
PG
t
2 2
2 (14)
r

Radar Equation for Distributed Targets
Accounting for Gain Function Shape:
Since the gain function maximizes along the beam axis, and decreases with angular
distance from the axis, we can approximate this shape as a Gaussian function
avg
Pr
c
512 2
PG
t
2 2
2
r
The equation above assumes uniform beam
A correction factor of 1/[2ln(2)] is needed for
Gaussian-shaped beams
avg
PG
c Radar equation for
Pr 2 2
2 a distributed target
1024 ln(2) 2
t
r (multiple birds)
Constant
Radar Target (multiple aircraft)
Characteristics Characteristics (multiple raindrops)

Distributed Weather Targets
Modifying our Radar Equation for Weather Targets:
Since meteorologists are interested in weather targets, we can develop special forms
of the distributed radar equations for typical collections of precipitation particles.
Three tasks must be completed:

1) Find the radar cross section of a single precipitation particle
2) Find the total radar cross section for the entire contributing region
3) Obtain the average radar reflectivity from all particles in that region
First Assumption: All particles are spheres!
Small Raindrops Spheres

Large raindrops Ellipsoids
Ice Crystals Variety of shapes
Gaupel / Hail Variety of shapes

Second Assumption: All particles are sufficiently small compared to the wavelength
of the transmitted radar pulse such that the back scatter can
be described by Rayleigh Scattering Theory
Types of scattering:
Rayleigh
Mie
Optical
How small? Why Raleigh scattering?

Radius less than /20
Since the particle is much smaller than
the variability associated with the radar
pulse E-field (a sine wave), then we can
assume the E-field across the particle
will be uniform

Impact of Radar Pulse on a Water Particle:
The radar pulse, and its associated E field, will induce an electric dipole within
any homogeneous dielectric sphere (i.e. a water drop or ice sphere)
The induced dipole vector Points in the same direction as the pulses E field
Magnitude is the product of the incident field and
the polarization of the sphere:
where: 0 = permittivity of free space

0 KD 3 Einc
p K = dielectric constant for water/ice
2 D = diameter of sphere
Einc = amplitude of incident E field
The sphere then scatters that portion of the E field equivalent to the dipole magnitude
The backscatter received at the radar is:
p 2 KD 3 Einc
Er 2 OR Er
0r 22 r

Radar Cross Section of a Small Dielectric Sphere:
Recall the definition of radar backscatter:
Sr
4r 2
S inc
The power flux densities and the E-field are related via:
Sr Er2
2
S inc Einc
Using the previous three equations, the radar cross section for a single sphere:
5K 2 D6 Proportional to the sixth power of the diameter

4 Proportional to the inverse fourth power of the
radar wavelength

What is the Dielectric Constant (K2)?
A measure of the scattering and absorption properties of a medium (water or ice)
r 1 where: 1 Permittivity of medium

K r
r 2 0 Permittivity of vacuum
Values of K2:
WATER 0.930 (spheres)
ICE 0.176 (spheres)

0.202 (snow flakes)

Radar Cross Section of Multiple Dielectric Spheres:
Following the same methods as before:
5K 2 D6

4
For an array of particles, we compute the average radar cross section:
5K 2
j 4 D 6j
j j
We then determine the average radar reflectivity:
j 5K 2
j
D 6
avg j
4
j
Vc Vc

Radar Reflectivity Factor (Z) for Multiple Dielectric Spheres:
Most practitioners of radar use this quantity to characterize precipitation
j
D 6
5K 2Z
Z
j Thus avg
Vc 4
It is regularly expressed in logarithmic units
Z Note the required units for Z

dBZ 10 log 6 3
to have a unitless dBZ
1 mm / m
and displayed on radar screens

Radar Equation:
We can then insert our radar reflectivity into our radar equation for a distributed target:
5K 2Z avg
avg Pr
c
1024 ln(2) 2
PG
t
2 2
2
4 r
to get our desired radar equation for weather targets:
c 3 PtG 2 K 2Z
Pr 2

1024 ln(2) 2
r
Solving for Z:
1024 ln(2) 2 Pr r 2
Z 2

c 3
PtG
2
K

Weather Radar Equation
Review of Assumptions:
1)The precipitation particles are homogeneous dielectric spheres with diameters

small compared to the radar wavelength
2)Particles are spread through the contributing region. If not, then the equation gives an
average radar reflectivity factor for the contributing region
3)The reflectivity factor (Z) is uniform throughout the contributing region and constant
over the period of time required to obtain the average value of the received power
4)All of the particles have the same dielectric constant. We assume they are all either
water or ice spheres
5) The main lobe of the radar pulse is adequately described by a Gaussian function
6)Microwave attenuation over the distance between the radar and the target is
negligible.
7)Multiple scattering is negligible. Since attenuation and multiple scattering are related,
if one is true, both are true.
8) The incident and backscattered waves are linearly polarized,

Validity of the Rayleigh Approximation:
Valid:
Raindrops: 0.01 0.5 cm (all rain)
= 10 cm Ice crystals: 0.01 3 cm (all snow)
Ice stones: 0.5 2.0 cm (small to moderate hail)
Raindrops: 0.01 0.5 cm (all rain)

= 3 cm Ice crystals: 0.01 0.5 cm (single crystals)
Ice stones: 0.1 - 0.5 cm (graupel)
Invalid:
Ice stones: > 2 cm (large hail)
= 10 cm
Ice crystals: > 0.5 cm (snowflakes)

= 3 cm Ice stones: > 0.5 cm (hail and large graupel)

Equivalent Radar Reflectivity Factor (Ze):
If one or more of the assumptions built into the radar equation are not satisfied, then
the reflectivity factor is re-named
1024 ln(2) 2 Pr r 2
Ze 2

c 3
PtG
2
K
In practice, one or more of the assumptions is almost always violated, and we

regularly use Z and Ze interchangeably.

Radar Equations
Summary:
Basic Approach to Radar Equation Development
Solitary Target
Power incident on target
Power scattered back toward radar
Amount of power collected by the antenna
Distributed (Multiple) Targets
Distributed (Multiple) Weather Targets

ESCI6000 Radar Equations

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Radar Equations

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Distributed (Multiple) Targets

Distributed (Multiple) Weather Targets

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

1. Determine the transmitted power per unit area

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

An isotropic radar transmits power equally in all directions

Power flux density at a given range from an isotropic antenna is:

where S = power flux density (W/m2)

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Combining (2) with (1):

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Effective beam width () defined at

For the same total transmitted power,

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

If the same antenna is used for both

Thus: Large antennas Large Gain

Desired: Small beam widths

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Echo from the side lobe is interpreted

Horizontal spreading of weaker echo

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Echo from the side lobe is interpreted

Vertical spreading of weaker echo

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Parabolic antennas allow for tapered illumination

Effects of Tapered Illumination:

The last two are undesirable, but in practice

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Defined as the ratio of the power flux density

PROBLEM: We dont measure Sback at r, Radar Transmitted

For practical purposes, redefined as the

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

In general, the radar cross section

2. Targets size relative to

3. Complex dielectric constant

4. Viewing aspect from the radar

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

GPt Power flux density

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Recall from before:

Substituting (6) into (8):

2G 2 Pt Radar equation for a single isolated target

Lets rearrange and examine this equation in more detail

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Written in terms of antenna effective area:

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Spherical shell centered on the radar

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Pulse duration = 1.57 s

cr 2 3.14 3.0 108 ms 1 1.57 10 6 s 105 m 0.0162

520 million raindrops!!

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

The pulse volume is not a perfect cone

About half the transmitted power

The gain function is not uniform

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

4)Scattering or absorption of microwaves by objects between the radar and contributing

Radar Meteorology M. D. Eastin

Recall radar equation for a single target:

Radar equation for a distributed target: