CGE535

ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION TECHNOLOGY

Fazril Irfan
Faculty of Chemical Engineering
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam
fazrilirfan@salam.uitm.edu.my
Tel: 017-259 1731

1
Week 5
Chapter 3: Electronic
Devices and Transducers

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/index.html
http://ecee.colorado.edu/~
 Lesson Outcome

At the end of class, students should be

able to:
Describe the concept of semiconductors and its
application
Explain the principle of diode, bipolar and field
effect transistors, thyristors and triacs operation
and identify their function in various applications.
Describe Transducer application in electric circuit

3
 TOPIC 1:
Semiconductors

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/index.htm
l
4
 Semiconductors
measures a material's
ability to conduct an
electric current
What is Semiconductor?
Conductivit
y, 1/R

SEMI +CONDUCTOR
Glass:
Copper: Silicon:
10-16 and 10-13
0.59 x 106 S/cm 10 x 10-1 S/cm
-8
S/cm

5
 Semiconductors

Materials that permit flow of electrons

are called conductors (e.g., gold, silver,
copper, etc.).
Materials that block flow of electrons are
called insulators (e.g., rubber, glass,
Teflon, mica, etc.).
Materials whose conductivity falls
between those of conductors and
insulators are called semiconductors.
Semiconductors are part-time
conductors whose conductivity can be
controlled.
Semiconductors

Common elements such as

carbon, silicon, and
germanium are
semiconductors.
Silicon is the best and most
widely used semiconductor.

7
 Semiconductors

Silicon is the most common

material used to build
semiconductor devices.
Si is the main ingredient of sand
and it is estimated that a cubic
mile of seawater contains 15,000
tons of Si.
Si is spun and grown into a
crystalline structure and cut into
wafers to make electronic devices
Semiconductors

The main characteristic of a

semiconductor element is that
it has four electrons in its outer
or valence orbit.

9
 Semiconductors

The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is their
ability to link together to
form a physical structure
called a crystal lattice.
The atoms link together with
one another sharing their
outer electrons.
These links are called
covalent bonds.

10
3D Crystal Lattice Structure

11
 Semiconductors
Atoms in a pure silicon wafer contains four electrons in outer orbit (called
valence electrons). Germanium is another semiconductor material with four
valence electrons.
In the crystalline lattice structure of Si, the valence electrons of every Si atom
are locked up in covalent bonds with the valence electrons of four neighboring Si
atoms.
In pure form, Si wafer does not contain any free charge carriers.
An applied voltage across pure Si wafer does not yield electron flow through
the wafer.
A pure Si wafer is said to act as an insulator.
In order to make useful semiconductor devices, materials such as phosphorus (P)
and boron (B) are added to Si to change Sis conductivity.
Semiconductors in our Daily
Life

13
Examples of Semiconductors

Diodes
Transistor
Thyristors 14
 Doping

A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator - very little

electricity will flow through it
To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other
atoms called impurities must be added.
Impurities are different elements.
This process is called doping.
Intrinsic Semiconductor based on temperature increment
(no doping).
Extrinsic Semiconductor based on doping with impurities.

15 http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/50.html
 Doping
An impurity, or element
like arsenic, has 5
valence electrons.
Adding arsenic (doping)
will allow four of the
arsenic valence electrons
to bond with the
neighboring silicon
atoms.
The one electron left
over for each arsenic
atom becomes available
to conduct current flow.
16
 Doping: Different
Approach
You can also dope a
semiconductor material with
an atom such as boron that
has only 3 valence electrons.
The 3 electrons in the outer
orbit do form covalent bonds
with its neighboring
semiconductor atoms as
before. But one electron is
missing from the bond.
This place where a fourth
electron should be is referred
to as a hole.
The hole assumes a positive
charge so it can attract
electrons from some other
source.
Holes become a type of
current carrier like the electron 17
to support current flow.
 Doping Effect

If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping,

there will be lots of extra electrons so the
resistance of the material will be low and
current will flow freely.
If you use only a few boron atoms, there will
be fewer free electrons so the resistance will
be high and less current will flow.
By controlling the doping amount, virtually any
resistance can be achieved.

18
Types of Semiconductor

N P
19
Semiconductors - N-Type
Silicon
The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an N type
semiconductor.
N is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the silicon
in small quantities.
Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so they're
out of place when they get into the silicon lattice. The fifth
electron has nothing to bond to, so it's free to move around.
It takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create
enough free electrons to allow an electric current to flow through
the silicon.
N-type silicon is a good conductor. Electrons have a negative
charge, hence the name N-type.
 N:Current Flow

The DC voltage source has a

positive terminal that
attracts the free electrons in
the semiconductor and pulls
them away from their atoms
leaving the atoms charged
positively.
Electrons from the negative
terminal of the supply enter
the semiconductor material
and are attracted by the
positive charge of the atoms
missing one of their
electrons.
Current (electrons) flows
from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal.
21
Semiconductors - P-Type
Silicon
Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called
holes is called P type semiconductor.
P is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant. Boron and gallium each
have only three outer electrons.
When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the lattice where
a silicon electron has nothing to bond to.
The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge, hence
the name P-type. Holes can conduct current.
A hole happily accepts an electron from a neighbor, moving the hole over
a space. P-type silicon is a good conductor.
 P:Current Flow

Electrons from the negative

supply terminal are attracted
to the positive holes and fill
them.
The positive terminal of the
supply pulls the electrons from
the holes leaving the holes to
attract more electrons.
Current (electrons) flows from
the negative terminal to the
positive terminal.
Inside the semiconductor
current flow is actually by the
movement of the holes from
positive to negative.

23
http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/
51.html
N vs P Semiconductor
 END OF TOPIC 1

25
Video 1
TOPIC 2: Diodes

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/54.html
 Diodes

The diode is the simplest and most fundamental

nonlinear circuit element.
Just like resistor, it has two terminals.
Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics.
Its use in rectifiers is the most common
application.
Ideal and practical diodes.

27
Diodes

The most important

region, which is called
p-n junction, is the
boundary between n-
type and p-type
semiconductor.

28
 Diodes
A diode is a 2 lead semiconductor that acts as a
one way gate to electron flow.
Diode allows current to pass in only one
direction.
A pn-junction diode is formed by joining
together n-type and p-type silicon.
In practice, as the n-type Si crystal is being
grown, the process is abruptly altered to grow p-
type Si crystal. Finally, a glass or plastic coating
is placed around the joined crystal.
The p-side is called anode and the n-side is
called cathode.
When the anode and cathode of a pn-junction
diode are connected to external voltage such
that the potential at anode is higher than the
potential at cathode, the diode is said to be
forward biased.
In a forward-biased diode current is allowed
to flow through the device.
29
When potential at anode is smaller than the
potential at cathode, the diode is said to be
 Diodes Water Analogy
When water pressure on left overcomes the restoring force of
spring, the gate is opened and water is allowed to flow.
When water pressure is from right to left, the gate is pressed
against the solid stop and no water is allowed to flow.
Spring restoring force is analogous to 0.6V needed to forward
bias a Si diode.

30
 How diode works?

When a diode is connected

to a battery as shown,
electrons from the n-side
and holes from the p-side
are forced toward the
center by the electrical
field supplied by the
battery.
The electrons and holes
combine causing the
current to pass through the
diode.
When a diode is arranged
in this way, it is said to be
forward biased.
 How diode works?

A diodes one-way gate feature does not work all the

time.
Typically for silicon diodes, an applied voltage of 0.6V
or greater is needed, otherwise, the diode will not
conduct.
This feature is useful in forming a voltage-sensitive
switch.
I-V characteristics for silicon and germanium diodes is
shown below.
 How diode doesnt works?

When a diode is connected to a battery

as
shown, holes in the n side are forced to
the
left while electrons in the p-side are
forced t0 the right. This results in an
empty zone around the pn- junction that
is free of charge carries creating a
depletion region.
This depletion region acts as an
insulator preventing current from
flowing through the diode. When a
diode is arranged in this way, it is said
to be reverse biased.
 Diodes Characteristics

Rule 1 : When no voltage is applied, it acts like

an open switch.
Rule 2 : When an inversed voltage is applied,
its continues to act as an open switch
(reversed-biased).
Rule 3 : When a forward voltage is applied, it
acts like a closed switch and current flow
(forward-biased).
Rule 4 : If current stop flowing, the diode
returns to its original open states.
34
 Diodes Characteristics

Conducting in one direction and not in the

other is the
I-V characteristic of the diode.
The arrow-like circuit symbol shows the
direction of conducting current.
Forward biasing voltage makes it turn on
(ideal).
Reverse biasing voltage makes it turn off (non-
ideal).

35
Load-line Analysis-Diode
Circuit

In order to solve a circuit with the presence of non-

linear elements such as diode, graphical method is
one of the approach. Consider the figure below:

We assume that the value of Vss

and R are known and that we wish
to find iD and vD

From KVL: Vss = RiD

+ vD
36
Load-line Analysis-Diode
Circuit

We can obtain a solution by plotting the i-v

characteristic of the diode.

A simple method is to assume that i D=0, the

Vss=vD @ x-axis

Next assume vD=0, iD=Vss/R @ y-axis

Then draw load line that connecting point A and

point B

The operating point is the intersection of the

load line and the diode
characteristicdetermination of iD and vD
Load-Line Analysis for the circuit

37
Exercise 1

By using the same figure, determine the

iD and vD for the diode with the following
characteristic: ix=[exp (vx)-1]/5

Assume Vss=5 V and R=2

38
 Types of Diodes

PN Junction
Diodes: A K
Are used to allow
current to flow in Schematic Symbol for a
PN Junction Diode
one direction while
blocking current
flow in the opposite
direction. The pn P N
junction diode is the
typical diode that Representative
has been used in Structure for a PN
Junction Diode
the previous
circuits.
39
 Types of Diodes

A K
Zener Diodes:
Schematic Symbol for a
Are specifically designed to Zener Diode
operate under reverse
breakdown conditions. These
diodes have a very accurate
and specific reverse breakdown
voltage.

40
 Types of Diodes

Schottky
Diodes:
A K
These diodes are designed to have
a very fast switching time which
Schematic Symbol for a makes them a great diode for digital
Schottky Diode circuit applications. They are very
common in computers because of
their ability to be switched on and
off so quickly.

41
 Types of Diodes

Shockley
Diodes:
A K
The Shockley diode is a four-layer
Schematic Symbol for a diode while other diodes are
four-layer Shockley
Diode
normally made with only two
layers. These types of diodes are
generally used to control the
average power delivered to a load.

The Traitorous Eight

42
 Types of Diodes
Light-
Emitting The arrows in the LED

Diodes: representation
indicate emitted light.

Light-emitting diodes are designed

A K
Schematic Symbol for a
Light-Emitting Diode
with a very large bandgap so
movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of
light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs
(Light-Emitting Diodes) emit infrared
radiation, while LEDs with higher
bandgap energy emit visible light.
Many stop lights are now starting to
use LEDs because they are extremely
bright and last longer than regular
bulbs for a relatively low cost.

43
 Types of Diodes
Photodiodes:

-While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes

are sensitive to received light. They
A K are constructed so their pn junction
can be exposed to the outside
through a clear window or lens.
-In Photoconductive mode the
saturation current increases in
proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is
A K used in CD players.
-In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn
junction is exposed to a certain
wavelength of light, the diode
generates voltage and can be used as
Schematic Symbols for
an energy source. This type of diode
Photodiodes
is used in the production of solar
power.
 Application of Diodes

Radio demodulation
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of
amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of
this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In
summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and
negative peaks of voltage, whose amplitude or envelope
is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode
rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving an audio
signal which is the original audio signal, minus
atmospheric noise. The audio is extracted using a simple
filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which
generates sound waves.
45
 Application of Diodes

Power conversion
We can construct rectifiers from diodes. They are
used to convert alternating current (AC)
electricity into direct current (DC).
Example : Automotive alternators, where the
diode, which convert AC into DC, provides better
performance than the commutator of earlier
dynamo.

46
 Application of Diodes

Over-voltage protection
Diodes are used to conduct damaging high voltages away from
sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased
(non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the
voltage rises, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting).
For example, diodes are used in motor controller and relay
circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging
voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. Many integrated
circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to
prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive
transistors. Diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at
higher power.

47
 Application of Diodes

Logic gates
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND
and OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic
Temperature measurements
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the
forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as
in a Silicon bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal
diode, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient
(at a constant current) but depends on doping concentration and
operating temperature. The temperature coefficient can be
negative as in typical thermistors or positive for temperature sense
diodes down to about 20 kelvins. Typically, silicon diodes have
approximately 2 mV/C temperature coefficient at room
temperature.
48
 References

New York University