APPLICATIONS

AND
PROCESSING OF
CERAMICS
 Most ceramic materials fall into an application-
classification scheme that includes the following groups:

(1) Glasses (3) Refractories

a. Glasses a. Fireclay
b. Silica
b. Glass-Ceramics c. Basic
d. Special
(2) Clay products
(4) Abrasives
a. Structural clay products
b. Whitewares (5) Cements

(6) Advanced ceramics

GLASSES
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics;
containers, lenses, and fiberglass represent typical
applications. As already mentioned, they are
noncrystalline silicates containing other oxides, notably
CaO, Na2O, K2O, and Al2O3, which influence the glass
properties.
Possibly the two prime assets of these materials are their
optical transparency and the relative ease with which they
may be fabricated.
GLASS-CERAMICS
Most inorganic glasses can be made to transform from a
noncrystalline state to one that is crystalline by the
proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process is
called crystallization, and the product is a fine-grained
polycrystalline material which is often called a glass
ceramic. The formation of these small glass-
ceramic grains is, in a sense, a phase
transformation, which involves nucleation and
growth stages.
A nucleating agent (frequently titanium dioxide) is often
added to the glass to promote crystallization. The
presence of a nucleating agent shifts the begin and end
transformation curves to shorter times.
PROPERTIES OF GLASS-CERAMICS
Glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the
following characteristics:
(1) relatively high mechanical strengths;
(2) low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid thermal shock);
(3) relatively high temperature capabilities;
(4) good dielectric properties (for electronic packaging
applications);
(5) good biological compatibility.
(6) Some glassceramics may be made optically transparent;
others are opaque.
APPLICATIONS OF GLASS-CERAMICS
Glassceramics are manufactured commercially
under the trade names of Pyroceram,
Corningware, Cercor, and Vision.
The most common uses for these materials are as
ovenware, tableware, oven windows, and rangetops
primarily because of their strength and excellent
resistance to thermal shock. They also serve as
electrical insulators and as substrates for printed
circuit boards, and are used for architectural cladding,
and for heat exchangers and regenerators.
CLAY PRODUCTS
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is
clay. This inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in
great abundance, often is used as mined without any
upgrading of quality.
Another reason for its popularity lies in the ease with
which clay products may be formed; when mixed in
the proper proportions, clay and water form a plastic
mass that is very amenable to shaping. The formed
piece is dried to remove some of the moisture, after
which it is fired at an elevated temperature to improve
its mechanical strength.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLAY PRODUCTS
(1) Structural clay products include building bricks,
tiles, and sewer pipes applications in which
structural integrity is important.

(2) Whiteware ceramics become white after the high-

temperature firing. Included in this group are porcelain,
pottery, tableware, china, and plumbing fixtures
(sanitary ware).
 REFRACTORIES
Refractory ceramics are utilized in large tonnages
Properties: the capacity to withstand high temperatures without
melting or decomposing, the capacity to remain unreactive and
inert when exposed to severe environments, and the ability to
provide thermal insulation.
Marketed in a variety of forms, most common as bricks. Typical
applications include furnace linings for metal refining, glass
manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and power
generation.
The performance of a refractory ceramic, to a large degree,
depends on its composition. There are several classifications
namely, fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories.
 FIRECLAY REFRACTORIES
The primary ingredients for the fireclay refractories are high-
purity fireclays, alumina and silica mixtures usually
containing between 25 and 45 wt% alumina.
Fireclay bricks are used principally in furnace construction, to
confine hot atmospheres, and to thermally insulate structural
members from excessive temperatures. For fireclay brick,
strength is not ordinarily an important consideration,
because support of structural loads is usually not required.
SILICA REFRACTORIES
Sometimes termed as acid refractories, these materials
are well known for their high-temperature load-bearing
capacity, are commonly used in the arched roofs of steel-
and glass-making furnaces; for these applications,
temperatures as high as 1650 degree Celsius may be
realized. The alumina content should be held to a
minimum, normally to between 0.2 and 1.0 wt%.
BASIC REFRACTORIES
The refractories that are rich in periclase, or
magnesia (MgO), are termed basic; they may also
contain calcium, chromium, and iron compounds.
The presence of silica is deleterious to their high-
temperature performance. Basic refractories are
especially resistant to attack by slags containing high
concentrations of MgO and CaO, and find extensive
use in some steel-making open hearth furnaces.
SPECIAL REFRACTORIES
There are other ceramic materials that are used for rather
specialized refractory applications. Some of these are relatively
high-purity oxide materials, many of which may be produced with
very little porosity. These specialized refractories are expensive.
Included in this group are alumina, silica, magnesia, beryllia
(BeO), zirconia (ZrO2), and mullite (3Al2O32SiO2). Others
include carbide compounds, in addition to carbon and graphite.
Silicon carbide (SiC) has been used for electrical resistance
heating elements, as a crucible material, and in internal furnace
components. Carbon and graphite are very refractory, but find
limited application because they are susceptible to oxidation at
temperatures in excess of about.
ABRASIVES
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut
away other material, which necessarily is softer. The
prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness
or wear resistance; a high degree of toughness is
essential to ensure that the abrasive particles do not
easily fracture.
Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as
abrasives; however, they are relatively expensive. The
more common ceramic abrasives include silicon
carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum oxide (or
corundum), and silica sand.
 Coated abrasives are those in which an abrasive
powder is coated on some type of paper or cloth
material; sandpaper is probably the most familiar
example. Wood, metals, ceramics, and plastics are all
frequently ground and polished using this form of
abrasive.
Abrasives are used in several formsbonded to
grinding wheels, as coated abrasives, and as loose
grains.
CEMENTS
Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as
inorganic cements: cement, plaster of paris, and
lime, which, as a group, are produced in extremely
large quantities. The characteristic feature of these
materials is that when mixed with water, they form a
paste that subsequently sets and hardens.
The cementitious bond develops at room
temperature.
PORTLAND CEMENT
Of cement group of materials, portland cement is
consumed in the largest tonnages. It is produced by grinding
and intimately mixing clay and lime-bearing minerals in the
proper proportions, and then heating the mixture to about in
a rotary kiln; this process,sometimes called calcination,
produces physical and chemical changes in the raw
materials. The resulting clinker product is then ground into
a very fine powder to which is added a small amount of
gypsum (CaSO42H2O) to retard the setting process. This
product is portland cement.
 It should be emphasized that the process by which cement
hardens is not one of drying but, rather, of hydration in
which water actually participates in a chemical bonding
reaction.
Portland cement is termed a hydraulic cement because
its hardness develops by chemical reactions with water. It
is used primarily in mortar and concrete to bind, into a
cohesive mass, aggregates of inert particles (sand and/or
gravel); these are considered to be composite materials.
Other cement materials, such as lime, are nonhydraulic;
that is, compounds other than water (e.g., CO2) are
involved in the hardening reaction.
 ADVANCED CERAMICS
Although the traditional ceramics discussed previously account for
the bulk of the production, the development of new and what are
termed advanced ceramics has begun and will continue to
establish a prominent niche in our advanced technologies. In
particular, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties and property
combinations unique to ceramics have been exploited in a host of
new products.
Advanced ceramics are utilized in optical fiber communications
systems, in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), as ball
bearings, and in applications that exploit the piezoelectric behavior
of a number of ceramic materials.
 MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS
(abbreviated MEMS) are miniature smart systems
consisting of a multitude of mechanical devices that are
integrated with large numbers of electrical elements on a
substrate of silicon. The mechanical components are
microsensors and microactuators.
OPTICAL FIBERS
One new and advanced ceramic material that is a
critical component in our modern optical
communications systems. The optical fiber is made of
extremely high-purity silica, which must be free of even
minute levels of contaminants and other defects that
absorb, scatter, and attenuate a light beam.
CERAMIC BALL BEARINGS
A bearing consists of balls and races that are in
contact with and rub against one another when in use.
In the past, both ball and race components traditionally
have been made of bearing steels that are very hard,
extremely corrosion resistant, and may be polished to a
very smooth surface finish.
CERAMIC BALL BEARINGS
Over the past decade or so silicon nitride (Si3N4) balls have
begun replacing steel balls in a number of applications,
since several properties of Si3N4 make it a more desirable
material. In most instances races are still made of steel,
because its tensile strength is superior to that of silicon
nitride. This combination of ceramic balls and steel races is
termed a hybrid bearing.
CERAMIC BALL BEARINGS
Some of the applications that employ these hybrid bearings
include inline skates, bicycles, electric motors, machine
tool spindles, precision medical hand tools (e.g., high-
speed dental drills and surgical saws), and textile, food
processing, and chemical equipment.
Ceramic materials are inherently more corrosion resistant
than metal alloys; thus, the silicon nitride balls may be
used in more corrosive environments and at higher
operating temperatures. Finally, because Si3N4 is an
electrical insulator (bearing steels are much more
electrically conductive), the ceramic bearings are immune
to arcing damage
FABRICATAION AND PROCESSING

OF CERAMICS
One chief concern in the application of ceramic
materials is the method of fabrication. Since ceramic
materials have relatively high melting temperatures,
casting them is normally impractical. Furthermore, in most
instances the brittleness of these materials precludes
deformation. Some ceramic pieces are formed from
powders (or particulate collections) that must ultimately
be dried and fired. Glass shapes are formed at elevated
temperatures from a fluid mass that becomes very
viscous upon cooling. Cements are shaped by placing
into forms a fluid paste that hardens and assumes a
permanent set by virtue of chemical reactions.
A classification scheme
for the ceramic-forming techniques
GLASS PROPERTIES
Glassy, or noncrystalline, materials do not
solidify in the same sense as do those that are
crystalline. Upon cooling, a glass becomes more
and more viscous in a continuous manner with
decreasing temperature; there is no definite
temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid
as with crystalline materials. In fact, one of the
distinctions between crystalline and noncrystalline
materials lies in the dependence of specific volume
(or volume per unit mass, the reciprocal of density)
on temperature .
Contrast of Specific
Volume versus-
Temperature behavior of
crystalline
and noncrystalline
materials. Crystalline
materials solidify at the
melting temperature, Tm
Characteristic of the
noncrystalline state
is the glass transition
temperature, Tg
For glassy materials,
volume decreases
continuously with
temperature reduction; a
slight decrease in slope of
the curve occurs at what is
called the glass transition
temperature, or fictive
temperature, Tg. Below this
temperature, the material is
considered to be a glass;
above, it is first a
supercooled liquid, and
finally a liquid.
 VISCOSITYTEMPERATURE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GLASS
On the viscosity scale several specific points that are
important in the fabrication and processing of glasses are
labeled: (1) Melting Point, (2) Working Point, (3)Softening
Point, (4)Annealing Point, & (5)Strain Point
Melting point, the temperature at which the viscosity is 10
Pa-s (100 P); the glass is fluid enough to be considered a
liquid.

Working point, the temperature at which the viscosity is

10,000Pa-s (10^4 P); the glass is easily deformed at this
viscosity.
Softening point, the temperature at which the viscosity is
4x10^6Pa-s (4 x 10^7 P), is the maximum temperature at
which a glass piece may be handled without causing
significant dimensional alterations.

Annealing point, the temperature at which the viscosity is

10^12Pa-s (10^13 P); at this temperature, atomic diffusion is
sufficiently rapid that any residual stresses may be removed
within about 15 min.

Strain point, corresponds to the temperature at which the

viscosity becomes 3 x 10^13 Pa-s (3 x 10^14 P); for
temperatures below the strain point, fracture will occur before
the onset of plastic deformation. The glass transition
temperature will be above the strain point.
GLASS FORMING
Most glass-forming operations are carried out within the
working range between the working and softening
temperatures. Of course, the temperature at which
each of these points occurs depends on glass
composition.
Glass is produced by heating the raw materials to an
elevated temperature above which melting occurs. Most
commercial glasses are of the silicasodalime variety.
For most applications, especially when optical
transparency is important, it is essential that the glass
product be homogeneous and pore free.
Four different forming methods are used to fabricate glass
products: pressing, blowing, drawing, and fiber forming

Pressing - used in the fabrication of relatively thick-walled

pieces such as plates and dishes. The glass piece is formed
by pressure application in a graphite-coated cast iron mold
having the desired shape; the mold is ordinarily heated to
ensure an even surface.
Blowing - from a raw gob of glass, a parison, or temporary
shape, is formed by mechanical pressing in a mold. This
piece is inserted into a finishing or blow mold and forced to
conform to the mold contours by the pressure created from
a blast of air.
Drawing - used to form long glass pieces such as
sheet, rod, tubing, and fibers, which have a constant
cross section. One process by which sheet glass is
formed is it may also be fabricated by hot rolling.

Fiber Forming - Fibers are formed by drawing the

molten glass through many small orifices at the
chamber base. The glass viscosity, which is critical, is
controlled by chamber and orifice temperatures.
HEAT TREATING GLASSES
Annealing Heat Treatment - the glassware is
heated to the annealing point, then slowly cooled to room
temperature to reduce the magnitude of thermal stresses.
These stresses are important in brittle ceramics, especially
glasses, since they may weaken the material or, in extreme
cases, lead to fracture, which is termed thermal shock.
Glass Tempering - the strength of a glass piece may be
enhanced by intentionally inducing compressive residual
surface stresses. This can be accomplished by a heat
treatment procedure called thermal tempering.
 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING
OF CLAY PRODUCTS
CLAY PROPERTIES:
Hydroplasticity of Clay Minerals, when water is
added, they become very plastic.

Clays are Aluminosilicates, composed of alumina

(Al2O3) and silica (SiO2), that contain chemically bound
water.
 COMPOSITIONS OF CLAY
PRODUCTS
In addition to clay, many of these products (in
particular the whitewares) also contain some
nonplastic ingredients; the nonclay minerals include
flint, or finely ground quartz, and a flux such as
feldspar.
Quartz is used primarily as a filler material, being
inexpensive, relatively hard, and chemically unreactive.
When mixed with clay, a flux forms a glass that has a
relatively low melting point. The feldspars are some of
the more common fluxing agents; they are a group
of aluminosilicate materials that contain K+, Na+ and
Ca2+ ions.
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
Two common shaping techniques are utilized for forming clay-
based compositions:
Hydroplastic Forming - Clay minerals, when mixed with
water, become highly plastic and pliable and may be molded
without cracking; however, they have extremely low yield
strengths.
Slip Casting - A slip is a suspension of clay and/or other non-
plastic materials in water. When poured into a porous mold,
water from the slip is absorbed into the mold, leaving behind a
solid layer on the mold wall the thickness of which depends on
the time. This process may be continued until the entire mold
cavity becomes solid (solid casting), or it may be terminated
when the solid shell wall reaches the desired thickness.
DRYING AND FIRING
Drying
Liquid is removed from a ceramic piece. As a clay-based
ceramic body dries, it also experiences some shrinkage. A
body that has been formed and dried but not fired is termed
green ceramic body.
Firing
Density and strength are enhanced as a result of a high-
temperature heat treatment.
After drying, a body is usually fired at a temperature
between 900 and 1400 C; the firing temperature depends
on the composition and desired properties of the finished
piece. During the firing operation, the density is further
increased (with an attendant decrease in porosity) and the
mechanical strength is enhanced.
POWDER PRESSING
Powder pressing, the ceramic analogue to powder
metallurgy, is used to fabricate both clay and nonclay
compositions, including electronic and magnetic ceramics as well
as some refractory brick products. There are three basic powder-
pressing procedures:
Uniaxial Pressing, the powder is compacted in a metal die by
pressure that is applied in a single direction.
Isostatic Pressing or Hydrostatic Pressing, the powdered
material is contained in a rubber envelope and the pressure is
applied by a fluid.
Hot Pressing, the powder pressing and heat treatment are
performed simultaneously the powder aggregate is compacted at
an elevated temperature. The procedure is used for materials that
do not form a liquid phase except at very high and impractical
temperatures.
TAPE CASTING
An important ceramic fabrication technique where thin
sheets of a flexible tape are produced by means of a
casting process.
Tape casting is widely used in the production of ceramic
substrates that are used for integrated circuits and for
multilayered capacitors.

CEMENTATION is also considered to be a

ceramic fabrication process. The cement material, when
mixed with water, forms a paste that, after being
fashioned into a desired shape, subsequently hardens
as a result of complex chemical reactions