SCIENCE

LECTURE
HISTORYOFTHEEARTH
PLANETS

FOUR INNER PLANETS

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are "rocky" in their composition,
WHILE THE FOUR MAJOR OUTER PLANETS,
Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus are "gaseous".
CompositionsoftheatmospheresofVenus,
EarthandMars(afterLovelock)
GEOLOGICALTIME

Geology
This includes careful field observation and the use of both field and laboratory
experiments to model natural processes and test hypotheses. In geology,
however, time is a critical factor. Most geological processes are very slow, and
many geological events take place over thousands or millions of years. Many
such processes simply cannot be duplicated in a laboratory.
Geologistshavedivideduptime
intofoureons
Hadean (Pre-Archean),
Archean,
Proterozoic, and
Phanerozoic
Phanerozoiceonhasbeen
dividedintothreeeras
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
PRINCIPLESINSTUDYING
ROCKS
principle of original horizontality states that sedimentary rocks were laid down essentially
horizontally.
The principle of superposition holds that younger sedimentary beds lie on top of older
sedimentary beds
principle of cross-cutting relationships - Various types of rocks can be intruded by younger
igneous rocks, and if we can clearly understand the cross-cutting relationships between the
rock types we can make assumptions about their relative ages
principle of uniformitarianism, which holds that geological processes which are currently
happening such as formation of mountains, erosion, deposition of sediments, and
volcanism are essentially similar to those which happened in the past, and which led to the
formation of the old rocks that we can observe.
AtomicChemistryandBonding

All matter is made up of atoms, and all atoms are made up of three main
particles known as protons, neutrons and electrons. As summarized in the
following table, protons are positively charged, neutrons are uncharged and
electrons are negatively charged. The negative charge of one electron balances
the positive charge of one proton. Both protons and neutrons have a mass of 1,
while electrons have almost no mass.
 The simplest atom is that of hydrogen, which has one proton and one electron.
The proton forms the nucleus of hydrogen, while the electron orbits around it.
The positively-charged protons tend to repel each other, and the neutrons help
to hold the nucleus together. For most of the 16 lightest elements (up to
oxygen) the number of neutrons is equal to the number of protons.
For most of the remaining elements there are more neutrons than protons,
because with increasing numbers of protons concentrated in a very small space,
more and more extra neutrons are needed to overcome the mutual repulsion of
the protons in order to keep the nucleus together
 The number of protons is the atomic number, the number of protons plus
neutrons is the atomic weight.
Cation positive ions
Anion negative ion
ionic bond electronic attraction between ions
Covalent bond - n element like chlorine can also form bonds without forming
ions
NonsilicateMinerals
 Oxide minerals have oxygen as their anion, but they exclude those with oxygen
complexes such as carbonate (CO3), sulphate (SO4), silicate (SiO2) etc. The most
important oxides are the iron oxides hematite and magnetite. Both of these are
important ores of iron. Corundum (Al2O3) is an abrasive, but can also be a
gemstone in its ruby and sapphire varieties
If the oxygen is also combined with hydrogen to form the hydroxyl anion (OH-)
the minerals is known as a hydroxide.
 Sulphides are minerals with the S-2 anion, and they include galena (PbS),
sphalerite (ZnS), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and molybdenite (MoS2), which are the
main ores of lead, zinc, copper and molybdenum respectively. Some other
sulphide minerals are pyrite (FeS2), pyrrhotite, bornite, stibnite, and
arsenopyrite.
Sulphates are minerals with the SO4-2 anion, and these include gypsum
(CaSO4.2H20) and the sulphates of barium and strontium: barite (BaSO4) and
celestite (SrSO4). In all of these cases the cation has a +2 charge which
balances the -2 charge on the sulphate ion
 The halides are so named because the anions include the halogen elements
chlorine, fluorine, bromine etc. Examples are halite (NaCl), sylvite (KCl) and
fluorite (Ca
The halides are so named because the anions include the halogen elements
chlorine, fluorine, bromine etc. Examples are halite (NaCl), sylvite (KCl) and
fluorite (CaF2). F2).
The carbonates include minerals in which the anion is the CO3-2 complex. The
carbonate combines with +2 cations to form minerals such as calcite (CaCO3),
magnesite (MgCO3), dolomite ((Ca,Mg)CO3) and siderite (FeCO3). The copper
minerals malachite and azurite are also carbonates.
 phosphate minerals the anion is PO4-4. The most important phosphate mineral
is apatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)).
Native minerals include only one element, such as gold, copper, sulphur or
carbon
silicate minerals include the elements silicon and oxygen in varying proportions
ranging from SiO2 to SiO4. These are discussed at length below.
ROCKSANDMAGMAS

A rock is defined as a consolidated mixture of minerals. By consolidated we

mean hard and solid. A mixture of minerals implies the presence of more than
one mineral grain, but not necessarily more than one type of mineral. A rock
can be composed of only one type of mineral (e.g., limestone is commonly
made up of just calcite), but most rocks are composed of several different types
of minerals. It is very important to understand the difference between rocks and
minerals. A rock can also include non-minerals, such as the organic matter
within a coal bed, or within some shales.
3maincategoriesofrock

IGNEOUS - formed from the cooling of a magma (i.e., from molten rock)
SEDIMENTARY - formed when weathered fragments of other rocks are
compressed and cemented together
METAMORPHIC -
formed by alteration (due to heat, pressure and/or chemical action) of a pre-
existing igneous or sedimentary rock
BowenReactionSeries

once a mineral has crystallized it may continue to react with the remaining
magma to form different minerals. For example, as the temperature drops the
olivine crystals might combine (react) with silica left in the magma to form
pyroxene, and pyroxene may later combine with more silica to form amphibole.
Therefore, although olivine might have been the first mineral to crystallize out
of a magma, when that magma is finally completely cooled it may contain no
olivine
fractionalcrystallization.

e minerals which first crystallize are likely to be heavier than the magma, they
may settle to the bottom of a magma chamber and thus become essentially
isolated from the rest of the magma. (This is especially true for relatively non-
viscous mafic magma.) The rest of the magma will then have a different
composition than the original magma (for example it will have less iron and
magnesium), and if some magma is then forced out of the magma chamber
(into a dyke or as a volcanic eruption) it will produce rocks of different
composition than the original magma.
IgneousRockClassification
WeatheringandErosion

weathering takes place when a rock is exposed to the "weather", in other words
to the forces and conditions that exist at the earth's surface. Most rocks are
formed at some depth within the crust, the only exceptions being volcanic rocks
Bothmechanicalandchemicalprocessesareimportantto
weathering,andinmostcasestheyacttogethertoreduce
solidrockstofinegrainedsedimentsanddissolved
substances.

The important agents of mechanical weathering are as follows

a) a decrease in pressure that results from removal of overlying rock
b) freezing and thawing of water in cracks in the rock
c) formation of salt crystals within the rock, and
d) plant roots and burrowing animals
exfoliation

When a mass of rock is exposed by weathering and by removal of the overlying

rock there is a decrease in the confining pressure on the rock, and a slight
expansion of the rock volume resulting to the rocks cracking
 Water is the most important agent of erosion and transportation of geological
materials, except in very dry or very cold regions. Water removes loose particles
from the surface, and washes them into channels and eventually into streams.
SedimentsandSedimentary
RockClassification
Sediments and sedimentary rocks are grouped into two main subdivisions
1. detritalwhich includes rocks made up of material transported as solid
particles (i.e., fragments), and
2. chemical which includes rocks made up of material that has been
transported in solution. Detrital sedimentary rockssuch as shale, sandstone
and conglomerateare the most abundant by far
Howsedimentsareconverted
intosedimentaryrocks
Lithification (involves compaction and cementation)
Compaction alone may be sufficient to lithify a shale because the particles are
small and tabular in shape, but for coarser rocks made up of rounded
fragments, the particles must be cemented together.
Cements are normally introduced by water percolating through the rock. This
water may contain dissolved silica, calcium, carbonate, or iron, and the
deposited minerals that comprise the cements include quartz, calcite and iron
oxide minerals such as hematite or limonite.
MetamorphicRocks

Metamorphism is the change that takes place within a body of rock as a result
of it being subjected to conditions that are different from those in which it
formed. In the strict sense, weathering can be thought of as metamorphism,
because under surficial conditions (i.e., low temperature, low pressure, lots of
oxygen and water) many minerals formed in igneous environments are not
stable and they tend to be altered into other minerals (e.g., feldspar into clay).
In general, however, the term metamorphism is used to describe what happens
to rocks when they become buried beneath other rocks, and are subjected to
higher temperatures and pressures than those at surface.
Foliation

The resulting alignment of minerals

When a body of rock becomes buried it is also subjected to considerable
pressure, mostly from the weight of the overlying rock, but also from stresses
related to tectonic activity. This normally results in the body of rock being
squeezed in one direction, and stretched out in another. The original texture of
the rock is changed partly because the body of rock may be stretched or
squeezed, but more significantly because the new minerals which are formed
tend to be elongated along the direction of the least stress. In other words, if
the greatest stress is from east and west, platy minerals like micas or elongated
minerals like amphiboles will grow preferentially in the north-south direction.
2wellknownmetamorphicrock

schist, a mica-rich rock in which the mica flakes are aligned to give a platy
appearance; and
gneiss, a quartz and feldspar rich rock in which the minerals are aligned in
bands.
GLACIATIONANDSURFICIAL
DEPOSITS
Geological deposits that are unconsolidated (have not been turned into rock)
are known as surficial deposits or drift, and can include materials such as clay,
silt, sand and gravel.
TYPESOFSEDIMENTSAND
DEPOSITS
 Fluvial sediments are common in river valleys, and like glacio-fluvial sediments,
they tend to be bedded and well sorted, with well-rounded clasts. Lake
sediments are typically very fine (silt and clay) and in many cases show well
defined lamination (fine bedding). In most cases the sediments within lakes
cannot be easily observed because they are still under water, but where the
lake level has dropped in the recent geological past the lake old sediments
might be exposed around the shoreline. A good example of this is Okanagan
Lake, the level of which was much higher shortly after the last glaciation.
 Gravity deposits accumulate at the bases of steep cliffs in areas of rapid
mechanical erosion (typically as a result of freezing and thawing). Such deposits
are known as scree or talus, and they comprise clasts that are almost exclusively
angular because they have not been moved far or by water.
 Aeolian deposits accumulate in areas where winds are quite strong and there
isnt enough vegetation to stabilize the sandy material. Most of the grains are
sand-sized, and it is quite typical for them to be dominated by quartz.
TheoryofPlateTectonics

The significant points of plate tectonic theory are that

the earth's crust is made up of a number of semi-rigid plates,
these plates move around with respect to each other, largely in response to
convection taking place within the earth's interior,
this process has been going on for much of the earth's history, and
most of the major geological features of the earth can be explained by
processes that take place at plate boundaries
ORIGINOFMOUNTAINSAND
THEIRVIEW
contractionism - the idea that the earth is slowly cooling and shrinking - so that
mountain ranges form like the wrinkles on a dried up apple, and in which the
oceans were merely submerged parts of former continents.
s permanentism - in which it was believed that the continents and oceans have
always been generally as they are today. This view incorporated a mechanism
for creation of mountain chains known as the geosyncline theory.
WhatisGeosynclinetheory?

A geosyncline is a belt of sedimentary deposits that accumulate within the

ocean along the margin of a continent - on the continental shelf and slope. The
sediments are derived from erosion of the continent (see figure below).
Geosynclinal sediments - which eventually turn into sedimentary rocks - can be
many thousands of metres thick. As they accumulate they push down the
preexisting crustal rocks. Extenisve geosynclinal deposits exist around much of
the coastline of most of the continents. Even into the early 1970's it was widely
believed that mountain belts were formed when geosynclines were compressed
by forces pushing from either side, although no one was exactly sure what force
was to do the pushing.
AlfredWegenerTheOriginof
ContinentsandOceans
Alfred Wegener was born in Berlin in 1880. He was a meteorologist and an
academic. In the time around 1910 Wegener encountered two ideas about
global geology:
the strong similarity of the shapes of the western edge of Africa and the eastern edge
of South America (the idea originally came from an American named Snider-Pelligrini
in 18582) and
the geological and paleontological match-ups between the continents on either side
of the Atlantic Ocean
Theinternalstructureofthe
earth
Seismic waves are physical disturbances in a body of rock - caused by
earthquakes or artificial explosions - which travel through the rock like a wave
across a body of water. They are divided into two types:
P (Primary, compressional or push) waves - like a coil spring (or slinky)
S (Secondary or shear) waves - like a piece of rope which has been flicked
Newideasoncontinentaldrift

Plate tectonics
Continental drift theory
Thegeologyofplateboundaries

Divergent boundaries
spreading boundaries, where new oceanic crust is created from molten mantle
material. Most are associated with the oceanic-ridges, and the crustal material
created at a spreading boundary is always oceanic in character
 Convergent boundaries
Convergent boundaries, where two plates move towards each other, are of
three types depending on what type of crust is present on either side of the
boundary (i.e., ocean-ocean, ocean-continent or continent-continent).
 Transform boundaries
Transform boundaries exist where one plate slides past another, without
production or destruction of crustal material.
Some transform faults connect continental parts of plates. An example is the San
Andreas Fault, which connects the Juan de Fuca ridge with the Gulf of California
ridge. Transform faults do not just connect divergent boundaries. For instance
the convergent boundary beneath the Himalayas is connected to the subduction
zone beneath Indonesia by a transform fault, and the Queen Charlotte Fault
connects the Juan de Fuca divergent boundary to the Aleutian subduction zone
Earthquakes

The plates that make up the earth's lithosphere are constantly in motion. The
rate of motion is a few centimetres per year, or approximately 0.1 mm per day
(about as fast as your fingernails grow). This does not mean, however, that the
rocks present at the places where plates meet (e.g., convergent boundaries and
transform faults) are constantly sliding past each other. Under some
circumstances they do, but in most cases, particularly in the upper part of the
crust, the friction between rocks at a boundary is great enough so that the two
plates are locked together. As the plates themselves continue to move,
deformation takes place in the rocks close to the locked boundary and strain
builds up in the deformed rocks
Strain,orelasticdeformation

represents potential energy stored within the rocks in the vicinity of the
boundary between two plates. Eventually the strain will become so great that
the friction and rock-strength that is preventing movement between the plates
will be overcome, the rocks will break and the plates will suddenly slide past
each other - producing an earthquake
Earthquakesoccurinthreemain
situations
 "focus" - The actual location of an earthquake within the earth
"epicentre - The point on the surface directly above the focus
crustal earthquakes - shallow earthquakes (< 40 km)
The Richter Scalemore appropriately called the magnitude scaleis one
means of expressing the magnitude of an earthquake (i.e., the amount of
energy released). The largest earthquakes occur along subduction zones in
areas of converging plates in places like Chile, Ecuador, Alaska, Japan and
southeast Asia.
 Mercalli Scale - amount of damage likely to be caused by an earthquake - or
earthquake intensity - is measured
SALIENT
POINTSIN
PHYSICS
 WhatisPhysics?

Physics [Gr. Physika, physical or natural things]

Originally, natural sciences or natural philosophy

The science of dealing with properties, changes, interaction,

etc., of matter and energy
Physics is subdivided into mechanics, thermodynamics,
optics, acoustics, etc.

From Webster's Unabridged Dictionary

 Physics:LikeaMysteryStory
Nature presents the clues
Experiments

We devise the hypothesis

Theory

A hypothesis predicts other facts that can be checked - is

the theory right?
Right - keep checking
Wrong - develop a new theory

Physics is an experimental science

 TheAncientGreeks
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is regarded as the
first person to attempt physics, and actually
gave physics its name.

On the nature of matter:

Matter was composed of:

Air Earth Water Fire

Every compound was a mixture of these elements

Unfortunately there is no predictive power

 OntheNatureofMotion
Natural motion - like a falling body
Objects seek their natural place
Heavy objects fall fast
Light objects fall slow
Objects fall at a constant speed

Unnatural motion - like a cart being pushed

The moving body comes to a stand still when the
force pushing it along no longer acts
The natural state of a body is at rest
AristotelianPhysics

Aristotelian Physics was based on logic

o It provided a framework for understanding nature
o It was logically consistent

It was wrong !!!

Aristotelian physics relied on logic - not experiment

 TheRenaissance
Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642) was one of the
first to use the scientific method of observation
and experimentation. He laid the groundwork
for modern science.

Observe Abstract

Hypothesis Prediction

Experiment
 ClassicalMechanics
Mechanics: the study of motion
Galileo (1564 -1642) laid the
groundwork for Mechanics

Newton (1642-1727) completed

its development (~almost~)
Newtons Laws work fine for
Large Objects - Balls, planes, planets, ...
Small objects (atoms) Quantum Mechanics
Slow Objects - people, cars, planes, ...
Fast objects (near the speed of light) Relativity
Classical Mechanics - essentially complete at the end of
the 19th Century
 WhyisPhysicsImportant?

Newtons Laws Quantum The Next

and Mechanics Great Theory
Classical Physics

Planetary motion Microwaves Teleportation

Steam Engines Transistors o Faster than
Radio Computers light travel
Lasers (cant exist
Cars
today)
Television
"Heavier-than-air flying machines are impossible."
Lord Kelvin, president, Royal Society, 1895.
 Mechanics
Physics is science of measurements
Mechanics deals with the motion of objects
o What specifies the motion?
o Where is it located?
o When was it there?
o How fast is it moving?

Before we can answer these questions

We must develop a common language
 Units

68
FundamentalUnits

Foot
Length [L] Meter - Accepted Unit
Furlong

Second - Accepted Unit

Time [T] Minute
Hour
Century

Kilogram - Accepted Unit

Mass [M] Slug
DerivedUnits

Single Fundamental Unit

Area = Length Length [L]2
Volume = Length Length Length [L]3

Combination of Units
Velocity = Length / Time [L/T]
Acceleration = Length / (Time Time) [L/T2]
Jerk = Length / (Time Time Time) [L/T3]
Force = Mass Length / (Time Time) [M L/T2]
 Units
SI (Systme Internationale) Units:
mks: L = meters (m), M = kilograms (kg), T
= seconds (s)
cgs: L = centimeters (cm), M = grams (g), T
= seconds (s)

British Units:
Inches, feet, miles, pounds, slugs...

We will switch back and forth in stating problems.

 UnitConversion
Useful Conversion Factors:
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m = 3.28 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 mile = 1.61 km

Example: convert miles per hour to meters per second:

mi mi ft 1 m 1 hr m
1 1 5280 0.447
hr hr mi 3.28 ft 3600 s s
OrdersofMagnitude

Physical quantities span an immense range

Length size of nucleus ~ 10-15 m

size of universe ~ 1030 m

Time nuclear vibration ~ 10-20 s

age of universe ~ 1018 s

Mass electron ~ 10-30 kg

universe ~ 1028 kg
 PhysicalScale
Orders of Magnitude Set the Scale
Atomic Physics ~ 10-10 m
Basketball ~ 10 m
Planetary Motion ~ 1010 m
Knowing the scale lets us guess the Result

Q: What is the speed of a 747?

Distance - New York to LA 4000 mi

= 660 mph
Flying Time 6 hrs
DimensionalAnalysis

Fundamental Quantities
Length - [L]
Time - [T]
Mass - [M]

Derived Quantities
Velocity - [L]/[T]
Density - [M]/[L]3
Energy - [M][L]2/[T]2
 PhysicalQuantities
Must always have dimensions
Can only compare quantities with the same
dimensions
v = v(0) + a t
[L]/[T] = [L]/[T] + [L]/[T]2 [T]

Comparing quantities with different

dimensions is nonsense
v = a t2
[L]/[T] = [L]/[T]2 [T]2 = [L]
 ProvidesSolutionSometimes
Which of these could be
Period of a Pendulum correct?

a ) t lg
Period is a time [T] - t
2

b) t mlg
2

Can only depend on: c) t

l l
t 2
g g
Length [L] - l d) t
ml
g
Mass [M] - m l
Gravity [L/T2] - g e) t
m
 SolvingProblems

78
ProblemSolvingStrategy

Each profession has its own specialized knowledge and patterns of thought.

The knowledge and thought processes that you use in each of the steps will
depend on the discipline in which you operate.

Taking into account the specific nature of physics, we choose to label and
interpret the five steps of the general problem solving strategy as follows:
 ProblemSolvingStrategy
A. Everyday language: D. Calculate solution:
1) Make a sketch.
2) What do you want to find out? 1) Plug in numerical values.
3) What are the physics ideas?

B. Physics description:
E. Evaluate the answer:
1) Make a physics diagram. 1) Is it properly stated?
2) Define your variables. 2) Is it reasonable?
3) Write down general equations.
3) Answered the question asked?

C. Combine equations:
1) Select an equation with the target variable.
2) Which of the variables are not known?
3) Substitute in a different equation.
4) Continue for all of the unknown variables .
5) Solve for the target variable.
6) Check units.
ProblemSolvingStrategy,StepA

A. Everyday language description:

In this step you develop a qualitative description of the problem.
Visualize the events described in the problem by making a sketch. The sketch should
indicate the different objects involved and any changes in the situation (e.g. changes in
force applied, collisions, etc.) First, identify the different objects that are relevant to
finding your desired category. Next, identify whether there is more than one stage (part)
to the behavior of the object during the time from the beginning to the end that is
relevant for what you are trying to find out. Things that would indicate more than one
part would include key information about the behavior of the object at a point between
start and end of movement, collisions, changes in the force applied or acceleration of an
object.
Write down a simple statement of what you want to find out. This should be a specific
physical quantity that you could calculate to answer the original question.
Write down verbal descriptions of the physics ideas (the type of problem). Identify the
physics idea for each stage of each object. If the physics idea is a vector quantity
(motion, force, momentum, etc.) identify how many dimensions are involved.
ProblemSolvingStrategy,StepB

B. Physics description:
In this step you use your qualitative understanding of the problem to prepare for the
quantitative solution.
First, simplify the problem situation by describing it with a diagram in terms of simple
physical objects and essential physical quantities. Make a physics diagram. You will
need a diagram for each physics idea for each object, and possibly one for each stage
and for each dimension.
Define your variables (make a chart) of know quantities and unknown quantities.
Identify the variable you will solve for. Make sure variables are defined for each
object, stage, idea and dimension. Pay attention to units, to make sure you have the
right kind of units for each type of variable.
Using the physics ideas assembled in A-3 and the diagram you made in B-1, write
down general equations which specify how these physical quantities are related
according to the principles of physics or mathematics.
ProblemSolvingStrategy,StepC

C. Combine equations:
In this step you translate the physics description into a set of equations which
represent the problem mathematically by using the equations assembled in step 2.
Select an equation from the list in B3 that contains the variable you are solving for
(as specified in B2).
Identify which of the variables in the selected equation are not known.
For each of the unknown variables, select another equation from the list in B3 and
solve it for the unknown variable. Then substitute the new equation in for the
unknown quantity in the original equation.
Continue steps 2 & 3 until all of the unknown variables (except the variable you are
solving for) have been replaced or eliminated.
Solve for the target variable.
Check your work by making sure the units work out.
ProblemSolvingStrategy,StepsD&E

D. Calculate solution:
In this step you actually execute the solution you have planned.
Plug in numerical values (with units) into your solution from C-5.

E. Evaluate the answer:

Finally, check your work.
Is it properly stated? Is it reasonable?
Have you actually answered the question asked?
ProblemSolvingStrategy

Consider each step as a translation of the previous step into a slightly different language.
You begin with the full complexity of real objects interacting in the real world and through a series
of steps arrive at a simple and precise mathematical expression. The five-step strategy represents
an effective way to organize your thinking to produce a solution based on your best understanding
of physics. The quality of the solution depends on the knowledge that you use in obtaining the
solution.
Your use of the strategy also makes it easier to look back through your solution to check for
incorrect knowledge and assumptions. That makes it an important tool for learning physics.
If you learn to use the strategy effectively, you will find it a valuable tool to use for solving new
and complex problems.
Vectors
 Scalars&Vectors
A scalar is a physical A vector is a physical
quantity that has only quantity that has both
magnitude (size) and can magnitude (size) and
be represented by a direction.
number and a unit.
Examples of vectors?
Examples of scalars?
Velocity
Time Force
Mass
Temperature
Density
Electric charge
 Displacement Vector is a change in
position. It is calculated as the final
position minus the initial position.

Vectors are

represented pictorially by an arrow from one point to another.

represented symbolically by a letter with an arrow above it.
 SomeVectorProperties
Two vectors that have the
Two vectors that have the
same direction are said to
be parallel.
Two vectors that have
opposite directions are said
to be anti-parallel.
same length and the same
direction are said to be
equal no matter where they
are located.
The negative of a vector is a
vector with the same
magnitude (size) but
opposite direction
 MagnitudeofaVector

( Magnitude of A) A A

The magnitude of a vector is a positive number (with

units!) that describes its size.
Example: magnitude of a displacement vector is its length.
The magnitude of a velocity vector is often called speed.
The magnitude of a vector is expressed using the same letter
as the vector but without the arrow on top of it.
 VectorAddition

Vector C of a vector sum of vectors A and C.

Example: double displacement of particle.

Vector addition is commutative (the order of vector

addition doesnt matter).
92 C
VectorAddition A U T I O N

Common error: to conclude that if C = A + B the

magnitude C should be equal the magnitude A plus
magnitude B. Wrong !

Example: C < A + B.
NewtonsLawsofMotion
NewtonsFirstLawofMotion

A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform linear motion until it is acted
upon by a net force.
The tendency of a body to maintain its state of rest or of uniform linear motion
(i.e., constant velocity) is called inertia. The physical measurement of inertia is
called mass.
NewtonsSecondLawofMotion

The net acceleration of an object is directly proportional to (and in the same

direction as) the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
NewtonsThirdLawofMotion

Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object
exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
ForcesduetoFrictionand
UniformCircularMotion
ForcesduetoFriction

Properties of a friction force (labeled Ffr) are

the friction force Ffr always opposes motion, when an object is moving, the
magnitude of the friction force Ffr is proportional to the magnitude of the normal
force FN (even though Ffr FN), with the constant of proportionality called the
coefficient of kinetic friction k,
when the object is stationary, the maximum friction force Fthr is proportional to
the normal force FN, with the constant of proportionality called the coefficient of
static friction s,
in general, the coefficient of static friction s is greater than the coefficient of
kinetic friction k: s k.
NewtonsLawofUniversal
Gravitation
Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them. This force acts along the line joining the
two particles.
The gravitational attraction gE of an object of mass m at rest on the Earths
surface is, therefore, inversely proportional to the square of Earths radius RE =6
.38 106 mand proportional to Earths mass mE =5.98x10^24
KeplersLawsofPlanetary
Motion
Keplers First Law: Each planet moves an elliptical path about the Sun (which
occupies one of its foci).
This law is explained by Newtons inverse-square relation between force and
distance.
Keplers Second Law: Each planet moves so that an imaginary line drawn from
the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time.
This law is explained by Newtons conservation law of angular momentum v1 r1
= v2 r2. Keplers Third Law: The ratio R3/T2 is a constant for all planets orbiting
the Sun.
ELECTRICITY
AND
MAGNETISM
Electriccharges

Since the Greeks rubbed one thing on another.

around 700 BC someone was polishing amber with cats fur and noticed that things
like straw and feathers were attracted to it.
the Greek word for amber is electron hence electric, electricity, electronics, electron

Wasittheamberitself?

By 1600 Sir William Gilbert showed that this property of attracting

things when rubbed was not a property of amber but was
universal.
Other stuff showed the same effect.
Gilbert also showed that the earth was a magnet.
The problem was that no one knew what was being rubbed.
Was it a fluid, an essence, or particles?
Was the process of rubbing creating whatever was responsible for the effect
or was it moving something around?
 Lightningstrikes!
Benjamin Franklin showed that the same process as
involved in rubbing one thing on another gave rise to
lightning.
He identified two types of charges and called them positive and
negative.
The only problem was that he got his signs wrong. The charges
that move about are negative not positive charges.
Whatever they were, charges were very small.
When there were many they could be thought of as resulting in a
continuous distribution in or on an object.
Later it was found that the smallest increment of free
charge that we can find in the universe is that on the
electron or 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs.
This is a description of things to come - charge was
considered quantized early.
 Quantifyandmakemeasurable

Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)

The law of force between point charges is an
inverse square law force.
The electrostatic force had the same functional form as
Newtons law of gravity
Carl Freidrich Gauss would show this is due to the fact
that there are 3 dimensions to space.
Introduced a proportionality constant to get the
units of force to be the same on both sides of his
equation.
The famous e0.
Maxwell was to show this constant is related to
the speed of light.
Magnets

Magnets (lodestones are natural magnets) had been known for

centuries.
Since about 2000 BC the Chinese used them to make compasses.
The word magnet comes from the name of a city in Turkey,
Magnesia, where the mineral magnetite is found.
It was soon clear that magnets always have both north and south
poles.
No mater how small you divided your magnet it always had both a north and
a south.
A modern way of saying this is to say that we have never found a magnetic
monopole, dipoles yes but no monopoles.
 Movingchargesaffectmagnets
In 1820 Hans Christian Oersted observed that currents
(moving electric charges) affected magnets much the
same way as other magnets did.
They exerted forces on the magnets.
He offered no explanation and no numerical measurements.
Also in 1820 Jean Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart, two
Frenchmen demonstrated that the magnetic force due to
a current was given by an inverse square law.
They introduced another constant to get the units right.
The equally famous m0/4
Maxwell was to show that it too was related to the
speed of light.
ThegeniusofFaraday
In London (in a lab I visited in 1997) Michael Faraday
(1791-1867), an unschooled bookbinders assistant,
experimented with magnets and currents.
In 1831 he observed that a moving magnet could induce
a current in a circuit.
This is the inverse of Oersteds observation.
Somehow electricity and magnetism were intimately related!!!
This became Faradays law of induction and ultimately
one of Maxwells equations
JamesClerkMaxwell
James Clerk Maxwell had the
mathematical skills that Faraday
lacked and used them to become the
greatest theoretician of the 19th
century.
He graduated Edinburgh University at
age 15 and became a full professor at
Aberdeen University at age 17.
In the 40 years (1839-1879) of his life
he established the foundations of
electricity and magnetism as
electromagnetics, established the
kinetic theory of gasses, explained
the rings of Saturn and
experimented with color vision.
Maxwellssymmetryandunification

Two rules governed electricity and two other rules governed magnetism.
Maxwell noticed that in these laws the electric field and the magnetic field
appeared nearly symmetrically in the equations.
For example, in Faradays Law a time varying magnetic field gave rise to an
electric field.
In Amperes law, as Maxwell modified it, a time varying electric field gave rise to a
magnetic field.
When made symmetric in electric and magnetic fields the set of four equations
described them both, they described the subject we now call electromagnetism.
Electricity and magnetism had been unified into
electromagnetism!
Ithadtobeso
Maxwells equations gave rise to a wave equation for
waves that propagated at the speed of light.
Young had shown that light was a wave phenomenon.
Light had to be an electromagnetic wave and so:

God said and there was light.

Remarkably, the speed of light was (e0m0)-1/2 and did not

have to be referenced to anything.
Allsortsofelectromagneticwaves

Not only did Maxwells waves travel at the speed of light, they
were polarized just as is light, they carried energy as does light and
they diffracted and interfered as does light.
Faraday, by now an old man, had claimed light was a transverse wave. He
had been ridiculed for this. Maxwell visited him to explain that he, Faraday,
had been right after all.
They also reflected and refracted.
Clearly, Maxwells electromagnetic waves were a form of light.
Later it became clear that so were radio waves, microwaves and
many others.
See the work of Hertz and Marconi for example.
THERMODYNAMICS
Thefourlawsof
Thermodynamics
The 0th Law (discovered 4th)
The 1st Law (discovered 2nd)
The 2nd Law (discovered 1st)
The 3rd Law (discovered 3rd)
The0 Law th

If:
Objects A and B are the same temperature
Objects B and C are the same temperature
Then:
Objects A and C are the same temperature

Just the transitive property of mathematics.

1 LawofThermodynamics
st

The total sum of all energy in an isolated system will never increase or decrease.

Law of conservation of energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transfer forms.

2 LawofTherm.
nd

If two objects are not the same temperature then:

Heat will always flow from high to low temperatures.
o Hot object will decrease in temperature and
cold object will increase in temperature
until they are both the same temperature.
2ndLawofTherm.
Entropy is randomness, i.e., disorder, spread out,
lack of structure, messiness, etc.
Entropy must increase (unless controlled by an
intelligence). Means that:
Machines cannot be 100% efficient.
Heat flows from hot to cold.

Examples: What happens to these if left alone?

a.) A stack of lumber in the forest.
 Entropy is a measure of how evenly spread out the energy is.

Entropy is a measure of energy that is no longer useful, or workable.

Work is change in energy. It wont change anymore if its spread out evenly. (Work
wont change anymore if the temperature is spread out evenly.)
 The amount of work done or the efficiency of an engine is determined by the
difference in the temperatures.
Hotter engine and cooler water makes for a greater temperature difference and
more work done.
This means:
1.) more work will be generated from an engine and
2.) the engine will run more efficiently. (estimated temps.)
When the temperature differences are greatest.
Car Engine Metal Oil Water Air
2000F 800 F 300F 180F 70F

The greater these temperature differences, the more energy from the car engines.
3 lawofThermodynamics
rd

Absolute zero is a state of zero motion.

This means absolutely no entropy.
So it cant be reached.
Environmental
Science
 Characteristics of Living Things
The world is filled with millions of organisms. An organism is a living
thing. A mosquito is an organism. An elephant is an organism. Mold is an
organism. A palm tree is an organism. You are an organism. All organisms
have things in common. Living things have characteristics or traits that make
them different from non-living things. All living things share the following traits:

Living Things are made Living Things Grow and

up of cells Develop

Organisms respond
Living Things Use
and adapt to their
Energy
environment

Organisms
Organisms have a life-
reproduce
span
 Needs of Living Things
All living things have needs too. All organisms need:

Air
Energy

Food and Water

Living Space

Acceptable Temperature
 Living Things and the Environment

Organisms get the things they need from their environment or

habitat. Different organisms live in different habitats because their
needs are different. A polar bear has very different needs than a
desert cactus!

There are two factors within an organisms habitat. Biotic

factors are the living things in a habitat such as plants, animals,
bacteria, etc. Abiotic factors are the non-living things in an
environment such as rocks, sand, air, sunlight, water, soil,
temperature etc.
Can you think of some biotic and abiotic factors of your backyard?
 Ecology
Ecology is the study of how living things interact with each other
and their environment.
An ecosystem is all the living and non-living things in a particular
area.

Within an ecosystem, many different populations of organisms

interact and compete for the things they need.
The size of a population of a particular organism can be
influenced by many factors. Organisms compete for food, water
and living space. When there isnt enough to go around, the
population of a species decreases or goes down. These factors
are called limiting factors.they limit populations.
 Adapting to the Environment
In order to survive, organisms must adapt or change to survive in their
environment. Only the strongest organisms survive and the ones who
cannot adapt may not survive. The process in which only the best suited
organisms survive their environment is called natural selection. When
organisms make changes in their behavior or physical appearance, this is
called adaptation.
Living things may adapt in several different ways. A polar bear grows
a thick fur to protect it from the cold. Some animals hibernate during the
winter. A walking stick looks just like a stick and is camouflaged with its
surroundings. A porcupine has sharp quills to protect it from its enemies
and some animals have bright colors to warn predators off. A skunk has a
stinky spray!
 Competition
When there is a limited amount of food, water or space in the
environment, organisms are forced to compete with each other.
Competition is a situation where organisms struggle with each other
and their environments in order to get what they need to live.
All ecosystems are based on competition. Competition controls
the populations within a habitat so that no one population gets too
large.
Animals that catch and eat their prey are called predators. The
animals the predators eat are the prey.
Q: What would happen if the number of prey in an ecosystem declined?
Q: What would happen if the number of predators in an ecosystem declined?

prey predator
 Symbiotic Relationships
Instead of competing with one another, sometimes
organisms depend on each other by living together
and helping one another.

Symbiosis is a relationship between two organisms

in which one or both of the partners benefit.
There are three types of symbiotic relationships:
commensalism, mutualism and parasitism.
 Mutualism

Mutualism is a relationship in which both organisms benefit.

For example, small birds sometimes piggyback on top of

hippos in order to get their food. They pick off small insects
to eat. The hippo benefits because the insects are removed
and the birds benefit because they got a good supper!
 Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in
which one member benefits and the other is neither
harmed, nor helped.
For example, a bird builds a nest in a tall tree The tree
provides protection to the bird from ground predators. The
bird is helped and the tree doesnt even know the
difference!
 Parasitism
In the relationship of parasitism, one partner
benefits and the other is harmed.
A blood-sucking flea is a great example of a
parasite. The flea is the parasite and the unfortunate
dog is its host. The parasite benefits and the host is
harmed.
 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
Organisms get energy in different ways. Some
organisms get energy directly from the sun, while others
must eat plants or animals. Each organism in an
ecosystem fills one of three energy roles: producer,
consumer and decomposer.

The sun is the source of all

energy in an ecosystem! The
energy must be passed from
one organism to another!
 Producers
Energy enters an ecosystem as sunlight. Plants absorb
that sunlight with their leaves. They combine the energy
with water and carbon dioxide to make food for
themselves. They release oxygen which humans and
animals need to survive. The process in which plants use
sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to make their own food
is called photosynthesis.

Plants are known as producers or

autotrophs because they
produce or make their own
food.
 Consumers
Consumers, or heterotrophs are organisms that cannot make their own
food. They must rely on producers or consumers that eat producers for
energy.
Consumers that eat only plants are known as herbivores. A cow is an
example of an herbivore.
Consumers that eat animals are known as carnivores. A wolf is a
carnivore.
Omnivores are consumers that eat both plants and animals. Most
humans are omnivores.

herbivore carnivore omnivore

 Decomposers
Decomposers are organisms that get their energy by
breaking down waste or dead organisms into nutrients. The
nutrients are then recycled back into the environment.
Fungi and bacteria are examples of decomposers. A log on
the ground disappears over time, it has decomposed. A
dead animal will eventually decompose.

Decomposers are natures recyclers!!!

 But We Cant EAT the sun!!??
Q: The sun is the source of energy, but we dont eat the
sun! We need energy to live so how do we get it?
A: We sit down and eat a juicy cheeseburger. Where did
the burger come from? Exactly, a nice juicy cow. And what
did the cow eat? Grass. Where did the grass get its
energy? The sun! Now do you get it?
So, next time when you sit down to eat a cheeseburger, you
can say mmmmthats good sun!
 Food Web
A food web is a way to show how the energy from the
sun gets passed around different organisms in the
environment.
Energy Pyramid
The energy pyramid
shows how energy
moves from one level
to another. The sun
provides energy to the
plants, the mice eat the
plants and the snake
eats the mice. Energy
travels from one level
to another. A little bit of
energy gets used at
each level.
The Water Cycle

The water cycle is

important to life.
Water evaporates
from the Earth,
condenses in the
clouds and then
falls back to Earth
in the form of rain,
sleet, snow or hail
(precipitation).
 Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Cycle

Plants take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. Animals

and humans take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
Plants and animals need each other for survival.
 Nitrogen Cycle

Animals eat plants, that contain nitrogen. The animals

produce waste which goes into the ground. Decomposers
(bacteria) break down the waste and release nitrogen back
into the air and soil. Plants use the nitrogen rich soil and
the process begins again.
 Biomes of the World

Rainforest
Desert
Grasslands
Deciduous Forest
Boreal Forest and Taiga
Tundra
Biomes are determined based on their climate-temperature
and precipitation.
 Rainforest
There are two types of rainforests: temperate rainforest and tropical
rainforest
A temperate rainforest has medium to low temperatures, but a lot of
precipitation. The northwestern part of the United States has a
temperature rainforest.
Tropical rainforests have hot climates and a lot of precipitation.
Tropical rainforests are found mostly near the equator and have a huge
variety of plants and animals.
There are major tropical rainforests in South America (Amazon
Rainforest), middle Africa and in Indonesia.
 Deserts
A desert is an area that gets little or no precipitation each year.
A hot desert becomes very cool at night.
Some deserts are cooler and actually get low temperatures.
Organisms that live in the desert must adapt to dry situations in order to
survive. A cactus can hold a large amount of water when it rains
because it has to conserve it during dry times.
Most desert animals are active at night when it is not so hot.
 Grasslands
There are two kinds of grasslands: prairie grasslands and savanna
grasslands.
Prairie grasslands get little rain, not enough for trees to grow.
Because of the dry climate, many fires start. North America has a
large area that is prairie grasslands.
Animals such as bison, rabbits, prairie dogs, hawks, mice, fox, ferrets,
snakes and owls live in the prairie grasslands.
Savanna grasslands receive more rain than prairies and are home to
animals such as the elephant, zebra, antelope, giraffe, and rhino.
Africa has large areas of savannah grasslands.
 Deciduous Forest
Deciduous trees are trees that lose their leaves and grow new ones
each year. A deciduous forest is a forest with many deciduous trees.
Deciduous forests have enough rain to support the growth of trees.
The temperatures in deciduous forests are quite different during the
seasons of the year, spring, summer, winter and fall.
Animals like skunks, squirrels, chipmunks, birds, deer, fox and bear live
in deciduous forests. Many of these animals have to adapt to cold
winters or migrate to warmer areas during that time.
 Boreal Forests or Taiga
A boreal forest is a forest where most of the trees are coniferous. A
coniferous tree is a tee that produce cones and needles instead of
leaves.
Winters are very cold and summers are mild. There is snow much of
the year.
Animals such as beavers, moose, elk, owl, lynx, bear, wolves,
squirrels, fox and birds live in boreal forests.
 Tundra
The tundra is an extremely dry and cold biome. A tundra is covered with snow
most of, if not all of the year. The ground is permanently frozen. This is called
permafrost.
Few plants grow on the tundra, mostly grass, moss, shrubs and small trees.
Animals such as caribou, musk ox, foxes, wolves. [polar bear and arctic rabbits
live in the tundra. They have to have thick fur to protect them from the cold.

Tundra Biomes:
 Aquatic Ecosystems
Aqua means water. Aquatic ecosystems are water-based
habitats.
There are two types of aquatic ecosystems: freshwater and marine
(salt water) ecosystems.
Aquatic ecosystems, like land ecosystems depend on sunlight,
temperature and oxygen to make life successful. Organisms must
adapt to their surroundings in order to survive.

Freshwater Saltwater
 Freshwater Ecosystems
There is a lot of water on our Earth, but only a small amount is made
up of fresh water. Therefore it is important to protect our fresh water!
Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, ponds, rivers and streams.
 Marine Ecosystems
An estuary is found where the fresh water of a river meets the salt
water of an ocean.
The Intertidal Zone is the rocky area along the ocean shoreline that
experiences the highs and lows of the tides.
The Neritic Zone is the shallow part of the ocean that covers the
continental shelf. Sunlight is able to reach through the water so this
zone supports a lot of life.
The Open Ocean is made up of the surface zone and the deep zone.
Light from the sun can shine through the surface zone, so life is
plentiful. The deep zone gets little to no sunlight.

Did you know? Our Earth is sometimes

called the Blue Planet? Do you know
why?
Tide Pools:
Open Ocean
 Changes In the Environment
Ecosystems are always changing. Sometimes those changes are quite
fast, like in the case of a natural disaster. A natural disaster like a flood,
fire, earthquake, mudslide, hurricane or volcanic eruption can instantly
change an environment and kill the communities that live there. If this
happens, a new community will replace the old community over time. This
is called succession. An example of succession is when a field is left
untouched for a long time, it may turn into a forest. If a volcano wipes out a
forest, it will eventually grow back.
 What Else Changes the Environment?

The Greenhouse Effect:

There are gases in the Earths atmosphere that are
known as greenhouse gasses. The gases let sunlight
pass through and trap some of the suns heat so that
the Earth stays warm. This is called the greenhouse
effect. This is great for plants and animals to live, but
too much greenhouse effect is a bad thing.

Worldwide pollution caused by humans is creating more greenhouse

gasses. Some scientists believe that this will increase the temperature of
the planet, resulting in global warming. This warming may cause glaciers
to melt and ocean levels to rise.
Other scientists think that the Earth will become colder because the suns
rays will be blocked by pollution. Either way, people should be more
thoughtful of the Earth because it is our only home!
 What Else Changes the Environment?
The Earth is protected by the atmosphere.
Ozone Depletion The atmosphere is the air that surrounds
the Earth. It protects us from the suns bad
rays. Ozone, a gas, absorbs most of the UV
rays. Ozone protects people when it is high
in the atmosphere, but it can hurt people
when it is near the ground. Smog, is a fog-
like substance caused by pollution. It
contains ozone that can harm people. Bad
ozone formed on Earth, rises into the
atmosphere and causes good ozone to
break down. This thinning of the good
ozone layer weakens the part of the
atmosphere that protects animals, plants
and humans from the sun. Again, humans
creating pollution is bad for our planet!
What Harms Our Environment?
Air Pollution: We pollute our air with
factory pollution and car exhaust.
Organisms, including humans need
clean air to survive.
Soil Pollution: We pollute our
ground with chemicals, hazardous
waste and garbage. These
hazardous materials can get into
our drinking water and harm us.

Water pollution destroys life in the

Earths freshwater ecosystems and
oceans.
What Else Harms our Environment?

Spraying pesticides and insecticides.

It kills the bugs we dont want, but
what does it do to the environment?

Deforestation is the cutting down of

many trees and not replacing them.
We use wood as a resource, but trees
support plant and animal life. We
must think about our future before
cutting down acres of forests, without
making plans to replace them!
What Else Harms Our Environment?
Waste: People produce so much
waste! Humans should be encouraged
to follow the three Rs: reduce, reuse,
and recycle! Many materials like
plastic, glass, metal and paper can be
recycled and re-used without causing
more harm to our environment.

Construction: Expanding the

places where humans live
harms the natural ecosystems.
Life in those ecosystems must
move elsewhere and some do
not survive.
 Extinction
Extinction means the disappearance of a species. This is a natural
process and throughout history, many organisms have become extinct,
like the dinosaurs. Organisms that are in danger of becoming extinct are
known as endangered species. Although extinction happens naturally,
humans have a large role in endangering species. Our actions destroy
the ecosystems and endanger the organisms that live in them.
Species are more likely to become extinct if:

They are naturally rare

They are sensitive to changes in the
environment
They have picky food or shelter needs
They have small numbers of offspring
They interfere with people in some way