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Vildana Hodzic
ENEE 697 Project
Spring 1999
Surface States of Si(111) Surface
Introduction
Si(111) surface structure
- Ideal versus real surfaces
- Real surfaces: 7x7 reconstruction of Si(111)7x7
surface
- Dimer-Adatom-Stacking-Fault Model
- Surface density of states and band banding
- Fermi level pinning at Si(111)7x7 surfaces
- Theoretical work on surface states of Si(111)7x7
Preparation of clean Si(111)7x7 surfaces
Theory of observation and experimental data
Introduction
The reliability and stability of all semiconductor devices are closely related to their surface conditions.
Therefore, an understanding of the surface physics is of great importance to device operation.
Investigating surface electronic properties is also very important since with the downscaling of
electronic devices the surface effects become larger as their scale becomes smaller.
The surface of a crystalline solid in vacuum is generally defined as a few (approximately three)
outermost atomic layers of the solid that differ significantly from the bulk. It may be atomically clean
or it may have foreign atoms deposited on it or incorporated on it. A complete characterization of a
solid surface requires knowledge of not only what atoms are present but also where they are. Just as in
the bulk, it is not the atomic coordinates as such that are of much direct interest. We are interested in
electronic and magnetic properties of the surface and it is the geometrical arrangement of the surface
atoms that largely determines the surface charge and spin density.
One can start by thinking of a clean surface in terms of a zero-order approximation, the so-called "ideal
surface". That is an abstraction created by passing a plane through an infinite crystal and separating the
two parts to infinity without perturbing positions of the atoms and the electron density. "Ideal surfaces"
as such do not exist in nature. All surfaces are energetically unfavorable in a sense that they have a
positive free energy of formation. A highly unstable or metastable state occurs when covalent bonds
are broken by cleavage. The surface atoms undergo relaxation and reconstruction in order to reduce the
surface free energy. Both relaxation and reconstruction may occur with clean surfaces in ultrahigh
vacuum, but adsorption of species onto the surface may enhance, alter or even reverse the process.
The differences between the real structure of the clean surface and the ideal structure may be
imperceptibly small (e.g. a very slight surface relaxation) or much more marked and involving a
change in the surface periodicity in one or more of the main symmetry directions (surface
reconstruction).
Ideal versus real surfaces
The ideal surfaces of the diamond lattice each expose hybrid orbitals that dangle into the
vacuum. Every such orbital is half-occupied if we imagine that the two bonding electrons/orbital
of the bulk are shared between the two half-crystals formed by cleavage. The (111) surface
contains one dangling hybrid per surface unit cell. From Fig.1a ) we see that the areal density of
dangling hybrids is lowest for the (111) surface. The surface tension of the (111) face is lowest.
This is the natural cleavage plane for Si.
Fig.1 Crystallography of a homopolar semiconductor: a) edge view that illustrates the ideal
termination of the three low-index faces [1]; b) top view of (111) face-decreasing atom size
indicates increasing distance from the surface. Dashes outline the surface unit mesh;
c) surface unit cell and sp3-hybrid lobes which would exist on (111) planes in the perfect bulk
material [2].
1. Harrison,W.A., Electronic Structure and the Properties of Solids, San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, (1980).
2. Ivanov,I., Mazur,A. and Pollmann,J., The ideal (111), (110) and (100) surfaces of Si, Ge and GaAs;
a comparison of their structure, Surf.Sci. 92, 365 (1980).
Real surfaces: 7x7 reconstruction of Si(111) surface
Clean (111)-oriented Si surfaces prepared by The first comprehensive structure analysis of
cleavage and subsequent heating to at least the Si(111)7x7 reconstruction was performed
650K in ultra-high vacuum reconstruct into the by evaluating intensity distribution of the
famous Si(111)7x7 surface structure.Studies of spots in the TED patterns [4]. This resulted
the surface crystallography by LEED back in in the Dimer-Adatom-Stacking-Fault model.
1959 revealed that this surface exhibits large TED typically uses 100 keV electrons so that
surface mesh [3]. the single-scattering approximation can be
assumed.
Fig.2 Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) Fig.3 Transmission electron diffraction (TED)
pattern of the Si(111)7x7 reconstruction [3]. pattern of the Si(111)7x7 [4].
Fig. 5 Topographic image of Si(111)7x7 surface as Fig. 6 A 3D image of ac-mode Atomic Force
recorded using Scanning Tunneling Microscope Microscope (AFM) data of the Si(111)7x7
(STM) with a bias voltage of + 2 V [8]. surface [9].
5. Binnig,G., Rohrer,H., Gerber,Ch. And Weibel,E., Physica 107 A&B, 1335 (1982).
6. Binnig,G., Rohrer,H., Gerber,Ch. And Weibel,E., Appl. Phys. Lett. 40, 178 (1982)
7. Binnig,G., Rohrer,H., Gerber,Ch. And Weibel,E.,7x7 Reconstruction on Si(111) Resolved in Real Space,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 50, 120 (1983).
8. Wiesendanger,R., Tarrach,G.,Scandella,L. and Gunthererodt,H.-J., Ultramicroscopy 32, 291 (1990).
9. Erlandsson,R. and Olsson,L., Appl. Phys. A 66, S879 (1998).
Surface density of states and band bending
a) Electronic properties of Si(111)7x7 surface have been
analyzed using different techniques: photoemission
[10], [11]; electron energy-loss spectroscopies [12],[13];
scanning tunneling microscopy [14],[15].
Angle-resolved photoemission studies have consistently
b) reported the existence of three surface-state bands. The
two bands closest to the Fermi level EF (S1 and S2) are
interpreted as dangling-bond and the third is associated
with back-bonds. The S1 and S2 bands show only a weak
dispersion [10]. This has been verified in STM studies
[15]. The S1 state, at -0.35eV (relative to EF), is located
c)
on adatoms and S2, at -0.8eV, is located to the rest atom
positions and at the corner-hole atoms. Photoemission
shows significant emission at EF implying that
Si(111)7x7 surface is metallic.
d) Low-temperature (55K) photoemission study [11]
shows a previously undetected surface-state structure
(S1) at ~0.5eV below EF. It is assigned to dangling-
bond states located mainly at the adatoms near the
corner holes.
Fig. 7 Difference STM images of occupied surface states on
a Si(111)7x7 surface:a) topographic image;b) adatom states
at -0.35eV;c)dangling bond states at -0.8eV;d)back bond
states at -1.7eV [15].
Fig.8 Angle-resolved spectra Fig. 9 Photoemission spectra Fig. 10 Dispersion of the S1 ,S1
obtained from the Si(111)7x7 obtained for various emission and S2 surface states along the
surface at three different sample angles along -M direction of -K and -M symmetry lines of
temperatures.The new surface the 1x1 surface Brillouin zone the 1x1 SBZ [11].
state S1 appears in the low- (SBZ) [11].
temperature spectra at ~0.5eV
below EF [11].