dB OPERATIONS and

NOISE
dB CALCULATIONS

DECIBEL Comparison of
two powers and
does not
A means of
express a fixed
expressing
value unless it
change in
refers to dB
power level
above or below
some specific
reference point
 dB CALCULATIONS

Change in POWER PdB = 10 log (Pout/Pin)

expressed in Decibels

Change in VOLTAGE VdB = 20 log Vout/Vin ;

expressed in Decibels (if R2=R1)

Change in CURRENT IdB = 20 log Iout/Iin ;

expressed in Decibels (if R2=R1)
POWER with RESPECT to SPECIFIC
REFERENCE POWER LEVEL

dBk = 10 log (Plevel/1x103 W)

dBw = 10 log (Plevel/1 W)
dBm = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-3 W)
dBu = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-6 W)
dBn = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-9 W)
dBp = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-12 W)
dBf = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-15 W)
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. How much in decibels is 125 W larger than 45 W?
a. 2. 78 dB
b. 4.44 dB
c. 27.8 dB
d. 44.4 dB

2. Determine the attenuation in decibels for the

attenuator having an input power of 100mW and an
output power of 3.5 mW.
a. 0.035 dB
b. -1.46 dB
c. 14.6 dB
d. -14.6 dB
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

3. Express 38 dB as a voltage ratio.

a. 6309
b. 79.43
c. 158.87
d. 63.09

4. Express 425 mW as dBm.

a. 2.63 dBm
b. 26.3 dBm
c. -2.63 dBm
d. -26.3 dBm
 dB OPERATIONS
dB1 + dB2 = dBT
dB + dBm = dBm
dB + dBu = dBu
dB + dBk = dBk
dBm1 + dBm2 Invalid operation

dBw1 + dBw2 Note: convert power

levels into watts and
dBk + dBw perform the operation
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. What is the power output of a 3-stage amplifier having gains equal
to 25 dB, -35 dB and 50 dB respectively, if the input power is 10 mW?
a. 100 W
b. 100 mW
c. 10 W
d. 10 mW

2. The input to a three-stage system is -12 dBm. The power gain of

the first stage is 40 dB, for the second stage a loss of 35 dB, and for
the third stage, a gain of 25 dB. What is the power output in dBm?
a. -18 dBm
b. 18 dBm
c. 36 dBm
d. -36 dBm
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

3. What is the difference between -18 and 22 dBm?

a. 40 dB
b. 40 dBm
c. 4 dB
d. 4 dBm
 POWER EXPRESSED in
NEPERS

Power can also be defined in When

terms of the natural defined as
logarithm to the base the natural
e=2.718281828. logarithm,
the unit is
PNeper = ln (Pout/Pin) Neper.

1 Neper = 8.686 dB ; 1 dB = 0.1151 Neper

 NOISE
Any unwanted form of electrical energy,
usually random or aperiodic in character,
which tends to interfere with the proper and
easy reception and reproduction of
transmitted signals.
 DISTORTION and
INTERFERENCE
DISTORTION INTERFERENCE

Any waveform Contamination by

perturbation or extraneous or
deviation external signals from
caused by the human sources,
imperfect other transmitters,
response of the power lines,
system to the machinery,
desired signal switching circuits,
and related sources
 RESULTS OF NOISE

hiss - loudspeakers

snow or confetti TV CRT

bit error digital transmission

 GENERAL CATEGORIES
of NOISE
CORRELATED UNCORRELATED
NOISE NOISE

unwanted electrical noise present

energy that is regardless of
present as a direct whether there is a
result of a signal, signal or none.
such as harmonic
and intermodulation
distortion.
 CORRELATED NOISE

INTERMODULATION HARMONIC
DISTORTION DISTORTION

unwanted cross- unwanted multiples

product (sum and of a single
difference) frequency created
frequencies created when amplified in
when two or more non-linear device
signals are
amplified in a non-
linear device. % THD = Vhigher/Vfundamental
 UNCORRELATED
NOISE
EXTERNAL
noise created outside
the receiver and
allowed to enter the
circuit

INTERNAL
noise created within the
receiver or the device.
 EXTERNAL
NOISE
ATMOSPHERIC NOISE (STATIC)

caused by lightning discharges

in thunderstorms and other
natural electric disturbances
occurring in the atmosphere.

less severe at frequencies

above 30 MHz
 EXTERNAL NOISE

EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE (SPACE NOISE)

Severe at
10 MHz
1.45 GHz
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL
NOISE

SOLAR NOISE

Constant noise radiation from

the sun (6000C). Due to
electrical disturbances due to
solar cycle activities that
repeat every 11 years and
supercycles every 99 years
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL
NOISE
COSMIC NOISE
(BLACKBODY, GALACTIC)

Noise radiated from

distant stars and other
heavenly bodies
 EXTERNAL
NOISE
INDUSTRIAL NOISE (MAN MADE
NOISE)

Noise coming from automobile and

aircraft ignition, electric motors
and switching equipment,
fluorescents, leakage from high
voltage lines and a multitude of
other heavy electric machines.

Severe at 15 160 MHz

 INTERNAL NOISE
THERMAL AGITATION NOISE
White, Gaussian, Johnson Noise
Due to the rapid and random motion of the
molecules, atoms and electrons of which any
component (resistor) made of.
 INTERNAL NOISE

R
Noise Power Pn=kTB

Noise Voltage Vn=4kTBR

Vn
 INTERNAL NOISE

Noise Current In=4kTBG

R
In
 INTERNAL NOISE

Noise Bandwidth and Noise

Voltage of RC Network

Bn = 1/4RC fc=1/2piRC R
C
Vn = (kT/C)

Vn
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. An amplifier operating over a 4 MHz BW has a 100
ohm input resistance and is operating at 300 deg K.
Determine the noise power generated.
a. 1.656 x 10 exp -13 W
b. 16.56 fW
c. 1656 nW
d. 1.656 pW

2. An amplifier with an input resistance of 1000 is

operating over a 4 MHz bandwidth. Calculate the rms
noise voltage if the amplifier is operating at 27 C.
a. 8.14 nV
b. 8.14 uV
c. 6.6 nV
d. 6.6. uV
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

3. Determine the equivalent noise bandwidth for a

single RC low pass filter if R = 20 k and C =
0.1uF.
a. 125 Hz
b. 250 Hz
c. 125 MHz
d. 250 MHz
INTERNAL NOISE
SHOT NOISE

Random variations in the arrival

of electrons (or holes) at the
output electrode of an amplifying
device
When amplified, it is supposed to
sound as though a shower of lead
shot were falling on a metal sheet.

in=(2eipB)
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Determine the noise current for a diode with a
forward bias of 3.5 mA over a 100 kHz BW.
a.10.58 nA
b. 0.335 nA
c. 21.2 nA
d. 5.6 nA

2. Determine the open circuit noise current in 1 Hz of

bandwidth at 290 K for a diode biased at 1mA.
a. 1.78 pA
b. 17.88 pA
c. 1.78 nA
d. 17.88 nA
 INTERNAL NOISE
TRANSIT TIME NOISE
High frequency noise resulting from delayed
travel of electrons from emitter-collector of a
vacuum tube or transistor
 MISCELLANEOUS
NOISE
a. FLICKER NOISE (MODULATION
NOISE, PINK NOISE)

Low frequency noise from carrier

density fluctuations. It is
proportional to emitter current
and junction temperature,
inversely proportional to frequency
(negligible above 500 Hz)
 MISCELLANEOUS
NOISE
b. RESISTANCE NOISE

Due to the base (greatest

contributor), emitter and
collector internal resistance

c. NOISE in MIXERS

Low transconductance of mixers

compared to amplifiers and
inadequate image frequency
rejection.
MISCELLANEOUS
NOISE

d. CROSSTALK
Interference signal from one
channel to another
e. AVALANCHE NOISE
Large noise spikes due to
collision that result in
avalanching action
 MISCELLANEOUS
NOISE
f. BURST NOISE (POP-CORN)

Low frequency noise observed in BJT

which appears as a series of burst of
two or more levels.

g. PARTITION NOISE

Random fluctuations in the division

of current in two or more electrodes.
 MISCELLANEOUS
NOISE

h. IMPULSE NOISE

Non-continuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or noise spikes of
short duration and of relatively high
amplitude. The spikes are called
HITS.
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL
SOURCES:
Vn total = 4kTBRt

RESISTORS IN SERIES:
Rt = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + . . .

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL:
Rt = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + . . .)
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
A1 A2
ADDITION of
NOISE due to R1 R2 R3
Vn1
SEVERAL
AMPLIFIERS Vn3
Vn2
in CASCADE:

When a noise resistance is transferred

from the output of a stage to its input, it
must be divided by the square of the
voltage gain of that particular stage.
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL
AMPLIFIERS in CASCADE:

Vn total = 4kTBReq
Req = equivalent noise resistance as referred to
the input

Req = R1 + R2/A12 + R3/A12 A22

 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Two resistors, 20 K and 50 k at ambient temperature.
Calculate, for a bandwidth equal to 100 kHz, the thermal
noise voltage for the two resistors connected in parallel.
a. 0.4782 uV
b. 4278 uV
c. 4.78 uV
d. 47.8 uV

2. Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a TV RF

amplifier using a device that has a 200- equivalent noise
resistance and a 300- input resistor. The bandwidth of the
amplifier is 6 MHz and the temperature is 17 C.
a. 6.93 nV
b. 6.93 uV
c. 69.3 nV
d. 69.3 uV
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
3. The first stage of a 2-stage amplifier has a voltage
gain of 10, a 600- input resistor, a 1600- equivalent
noise resistance and a 27-K output resistor. For the
second stage, the values are 25, 81 K, 10 K and 1
M, respectively. Find the equivalent noise resistance
of this 2 stage amplifier.
a. 2518
b. 816
c. 620
d. 914
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
SIGNAL-to-NOISE RATIO (S/N)
Relative strength of the signal power to
the noise power at the same point

S/N = (signal power/noise power)

= (Ps/Pn) ; power ratio

S/N = (signal voltage/noise voltage)2

= (Vs/Vn)2 ; voltage ratio
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS

NOISE FACTOR (F) and NOISE FIGURE (NF)

The figure of merit that indicates the

degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio
as the signal propagates through an
amplifier or a communications system.
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
a. NOISE FACTOR from SIGNAL to NOISE
RATIO

F = (input S/N) / (output S/N)

NFdB = 10 log F
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
b. NOISE FACTOR from
EQUIVALENT NOISE RESISTANCE
Generator (antenna) Amplifier (receiver)

Av
Ra
Vi Rt Rt Vo
Vn

F = 1 + (Req/Ra) Req = Req - Rt

 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
c. Noise Factor in Terms of Equivalent
Noise Temperature

F = 1 + (Teq/T0)

Teq = T0 (F 1)
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. The signal in a channel is measured to be 23 dB
while noise in the same channel is measured to be 9
dB. The signal to noise ratio is
a. 9/23
b. 23/9
c. 32 dB
d. 14 dB
2. What is the S/N at the output of an amplifier whose
F = 10 dB and the input S/N = 25 dB?
a. 35 dB
b. 15 dB
c. 25 dB
d. 10 dB
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
3. The equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier
is 25 K. What is the noise figure?
a. 10.86
b. 1.086
c. 0.1086
d. 1.86

4. A receiver is connected to an antenna whose

resistance is 60 has an equivalent noise resistance
of 40 . Calculate the receivers noise figure in
decibel and its equivalent noise temperature.
a. 1.67 and 194 K
b. 2.23 and 194 K
c. 1.67 and 174 K
d. 2.23 and 174 K
 NOISE ANALYSIS and
CALCULATIONS
CARRIER to NOISE RATIO (C/N)

Is the ratio of the wideband carrier to

the wideband noise power

The signal-to-noise ratio measured

before the signal is demodulated, that
is, while it still has a carrier.
 NOISE UNITS and
LEVELS
Test tone
A pure signal at a signal frequency and
power level
Usual reference 1000 Hz at 1 mW applied
at a point of 0 relative level

Weighting Curve
Curve showing the relative interfering
effects of sinusoidal tones compared to a
reference frequency
 NOISE UNITS and
LEVELS
Weighting Network
Equalizer which attenuates frequencies in the
same manner as would be done by the
average ear with the specific listening
apparatus to which the weighting refers.

Relative Level
The difference between the power of a signal
at one point and its power a reference point
 NOISE UNITS and
LEVELS
1. dBrn (144 2. dBa (F1A Weighting
Weighting Curve, Curve, F1A Handset)
Western Electric 144
dB above reference
Handset)
noise adjusted
dB above reference Reference level: -85
noise dBm at 1 kHz (pure
tone)
Reference level: -90
dBm at 1 kHz (pure -82 dBm at 3 kHz
tone) (random, white noise)
 NOISE UNITS and
LEVELS
3. dBrnC (C-Message 4. pWp (pW
Weighting Curve, 500 psophometrically
type handset) weighted)
dB above reference Psophometrically
noise weighted picowatt
Reference level: -90 Reference level: -90
dBm at 1 kHz (pure dBm at 800 Hz
tone)
-88 dBm at 3 kHz
(random, white noise)
 NOISE UNITS and
LEVELS

5. dBaO 6. dBrnCO

dBa adjusted at 0 dBm dBrnC at 0 dBm level

level point point
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. At what power level does a 1 kHz tone cause
zero interference, 144 weighted?
a. 90 dB
b. 90 dBm
c. 90 dBm
d. 90 dB

2. What is the reference noise level?

a. 10 pW
b. 0 dBm
c. 1 mW
d. 90 dBm
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
3. What is the reference frequency of CCITT
psophometric noise measurement?
a. 800 Hz
b. 1500 Hz
c. 3400 Hz
d. 1000 Hz

4. A decibel notation relative to a reference noise

level.
a. dBa
b. dBp
c. dBf
d. dBr n
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
5. 15 dBa F1A weighted
a. 90 dBm
b. 82 dBm
c. 85 dBm
d. 70 dBm

6. The extent of noise referred to a test tone of

zero dBm.
a. dBa
b. dBm
c. dBa0
d. dbr n C
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS

7. How many dBmV units correspond to a 1 mV signal

level?
a. 0
b. 1
c. 3
d. 6