Week 2A Chapter 3 Fundamentals

of Physics & Chapter 4 The Atom

Physics is the study of the interaction of
matter & energy.
Physicist strive for simplicity. There are
three base quantities.
Mass
Length
Time.
 Base Quantities Support
Derived Quantities
From the base
quantities, derived
quantities are formed.
For radiology there
are special quantities.
Exposure
Dose
Dose equivalent
Activity
 Units of Measure
Every measurement has two parts: a
magnitude and a unit.
Four systems of units
MKS (meters, kilograms, seconds)
CGS ( centimeters, grams, seconds)
British (Foot, Pound, Seconds)
International (SI) (Meter, Kilogram, Seconds)
 Standards of Mass and Time
Mass: The kilogram is the unit for Mass.
Mass is not weight.
For weight: The Newton or British Pound
are used.
Time: Time is measured in seconds
 Systems of Units
The pound is actually a unit of force but is
related to mass.
The SI has four additional base units.
There are special derived units and
special units for derived quantities &
special quantities.
 SI units for Radiologic
Quantities
British SI
Exposure C/kg Air Kerma (Gya)
Dose J/kg Gray (Gyt)
Dose Equivalent J/kg Seivert (Sv)
Activity s-1 Becquerel (Bq)
 Direction of Motion
Mechanics deals with the motion of
objects.
Motion of an object is described by the use
of two terms:
Velocity or speed or how fast the object is
moving.
Acceleration or the rate of change of
velocity.
Velocity of light c= 3 x 108m/s
 Velocity or Speed
Velocity is how fast an object is moving or
the rate of change of position in time. The
metric measure is kilometers per hour or
meters per second.
V= Distance / Time
Average velocity is determined by adding
the initial velocity and final velocity and
dividing by 2.
 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity. It is measured in m/s2.
Acceleration is velocity divided by time or
distance divided twice by time
If velocity is constant, the acceleration
would be zero.
 Newtons Laws of Motion
Newtons First Law: A body will remain at
rest or continue moving with a constant
velocity in a straight line unless acted on
by an external force. The Law of Inertia
 Newtons Laws of Motion
Newtons second law define force: The
force (F) acting on an object with
acceleration (a) is equal to the mass (m)
multiplied by the acceleration. Force is
mass times acceleration.
SI unit is Newton
CGS unit is dyne. (1N=103 dyne)
F=ma
 Newtons Laws of Motion
Newtons Third Law: To every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.
 Weight WT = mg
Weight (WT) is a force on a body caused
by gravity. This rate is called the
acceleration of gravity (g)
The value for earth are:
SI g= 9.8 m/s2
CGS g= 980 cm/s2
British g= 32 ft/s2
 Momentum p = mv
Momentum is represented by p
Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.
The greater the velocity of an object, the
more momentum the object possesses.
The conservation of momentum law states
the total momentum before any interaction
is equal to the total momentum after the
interaction.
 Work = fd
Work done on an object is the force
applied times the distance over which it is
applied.
The SI unit is joule (j)
The CGS unit is erg
An object held motionless has no work
according to the physics term.
 Power P=Work/t
Power is the rate of doing work.
The SI term for power is watt (W) or
Joules/ second.
The British term is horsepower (hp)
1 hp= 746 w
1000 W= 1 kilowatt (kW)
 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. Energy
may be transformed from one form to
another but it cannot be created or
destroyed. The units for energy and work
are the same.
To make x-ray, electrical energy is
converted heat and x-rays in the x-ray
tube.
 Mechanical Energy
There are two types of mechanical energy.
Kinetic Energy (KE) or energy in motion
KE = 1/2 mv2
Kinetic energy is dependent upon the mass of the
object and the square of the velocity.
Potential Energy (PE) or stored energy of
position or configuration.
PE= mgh where h is the height above the earths
surface.
 Heat
Heat is a form of energy important to
radiology. Excessive heat will damage x-
ray tubes.
Heat is the amount of kinetic energy of the
random disordered motion of molecules.
The unit for heat is calorie.
 Heat
1 calorie equals the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of
water 1 degree C.
Heat is transferred three ways.
Conduction
Convection
Thermal reaction
 Heat
Conduction is the transfer of heat by
molecular motion.
Convection is the mechanical transfer of
hot molecules in a gas or liquid from one
place to another.
 Heat
Thermal reaction is the transfer of heat
through space that depends upon the
temperature of the object.
X-ray tubes use thermal reaction for
cooling.
Thermal radiation is the transfer of heat
by the emission of infrared radiation. It is
that red glow that come off very hot
objects.
 Temperature units
There are three scales of temperature
Fahrenheit (F) Tf= 9/5Tc -32
Celsius (C) Tc= 5/9Tf +32
Kelvin (K) Tk = Tc +273
 Chapter 3 The Atom
One of sciences most pronounced and
continuing investigation has been
determining the structure of matter.
The Greek used the term atom to describe
the smallest part of the four substances of
matter. They were air, fire water earth.
This persisted until 1808.
 The Atom
Today there are over 100 elements: 92 are
naturally occurring and over 15 have been
artificially produced
In 1808, John Dalton showed that
elements could be classified according to
integral values of atomic mass.
The Atom through the Ages
 The Elements
In the middle of the 19th century, a
Russian scholar Dmitri Mendeleev was
credited with showing that if the elements
were arranged in the order of increasing
atomic mass, a periodic repetition of
similar chemical properties occurred. His
work resulted in the Periodic Table of the
Elements
 The Atom
In the late 1890s J.J. Thompson theorized
that the atom was like a plumb pudding
where the plumbs represent negatively
charged electron and the pudding was a
shapeless mass of positive electrification.
In 1911 Earnest Rutherford disproved
Thompsons model of the atom.
 The Atom
The Rutherford atom has a small positively
charged nucleus and a cloud of negatively
charged electrons.
In 1913 Neils Bohr improved upon
Rutherfords description of the atom as a
miniature solar system. His method still
works though quantum mechanics model
is more accurate.
 The Molecule
Atoms of various elements combine to
form molecules. A measurable quantity of
one type of molecules is called a chemical
compound. Molecules make structures.
 Fundamental Particles
The atom as
described by Bohr
consists of orbiting
negatively charges
electrons and a
nucleus containing
protons and neutrons
which are made of
quarks bound
together by gluons.
 Fundamental Particles
The fundamental
particles of the atoms
are electrons, protons
and neutrons.
Atomic particles are
so small, they are
expressed in atomic
mass units.
1 amu = 1/12 the
mass of a carbon 12
atom.
 Atomic Structure
The nucleus of the atom contains 99.98% of the
mass of a element. The nucleus contains
nucleons called protons and neutrons. The
neutron has no charge while the protons carry a
positive charge.
The electrons carry a negative charge and are
arranged in shell. The arrangement of shells
determine how the atom reacts chemically or
how it combines with other atoms to form
molecules.
 Atomic Structure
The number of protons determines the chemical
element.
Atoms with a different number of neutrons are
called isotopes.
The electrons are arranged in shells given codes
K, L,M,N,.. To represent the electron binding
energies. K being the innermost shell.
Electrons closer to the nucleus have higher
binding energies.
Electrons farther away from the nucleus have
greater potential energy.
 Atomic Structure
Atoms are electrically neutral. Because the
number of electrons and protons are equal.
The positive charge of the nucleus provided a
binding force for the atom.
If the atom has an extra electron or an electron
is removed, it is said to be ionized.
Ionized atoms are no longer electrically neutral.
Ionization is possible only with addition or loss of
electrons. A change in protons would change
the element. A change in neutrons would not
cause ionization.
 Electron Arrangement
Physicist call the shell number n the
principle quantum number.
The maximum number of electrons that
can exist in each shell increases with the
distance of the shell from the nucleus.
The number can be calculated by the
expression 2n2 where n is the shell
number.
 Electron Arrangement
The number of electrons in the outermost
shell of an atom is equal to its group in the
periodic table.
The number of electrons in the outermost
shell determines the valence of a atom.
The number of the outermost shell of an
atom is equal to its period in the periodic
table.
 Electron Arrangement
No outer shell can contain more than 8
electrons.
All atoms that have one electron in the outer
shell fall in group one of the periodic table and
two electrons fall in group two.
This orderly progression is interrupted in the 4th
period. Instead of adding another electron to the
outer shell, one is added to the inner shell.
These are called transitional elements.
 Electron Arrangement
Shell notation of the electron arrangement of an
atoms not only identifies the relative distance of
an electron from the nucleus but indicates the
relative binding energy by which the electron is
bound to the nucleus.
The centripetal force or the force of attraction
of the negative charge of the electron and the
positive charge of the nucleus balances the
centrifugal force or the force of the electron
velocity to keep the electrons in precise orbits.
 Electron Binding Energy
The strength of the attachment of the
electron to the nucleus is called the
electron binding energy or Eb.
The electron closer to the nucleus is more
tightly bound than the outer shell electron.
Not all K-shell electrons are bound with
the same binding energy. The greater the
total number of electrons, the more tightly
each is bound.
 Electron Binding Energy
The larger and more complex atoms have higher
Eb than smaller atoms because of the greater
number of protons.
It take more energy to ionize these larger atoms.
Carbon is one of the important components of
human tissue. As with other tissue atoms, Eb is
approximately 10 eV. Yet is take about 34eV to
ionize tissue atoms. The 34 eV is called the
ionization potential. The difference 24 eV
causes multiple excitations resulting in heat.
 Atomic Nomenclature
Often elements are identified by an
alphabetic abbreviation called the atomic
symbol.
The chemical properties are determined
by the number and arrangement of
electrons. In the neutral atom, the number
of electrons and protons are the same.
This is called the atomic number or Z.
 Atomic Nomenclature
The number of protons and number of
neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms is
called the atomic mass number or A.
The atomic mass number and the precise
mass number are not equal. The actual
precise atomic number (amu) is
determined by actual measurement.
The Tungsten Atom
 Isotopes
Atoms that have the same atomic number
but different atomic mass numbers are
isotopes.
Barium has an atomic number of 56. Its
atomic mass number is 138 and is based
upon the average of the seven isotopes of
barium. Each has a different atomic mass
but reacts chemically the same.
 Isobars
Isobars are atoms that have different
numbers of protons and neutrons but the
same number of nucleons.
Isobaric radioactive transitions from parent
atom to daughter atoms result in the
release of a beta particle or positron. The
parent atom and the daughter atoms are
of different elements.
 Isotones & Isomers
Atoms with the same number of neutrons
but different number of protons are
isotones.
Isomers have the same atomic number
and the same atomic mass number.
 Characteristics of Various Nuclear
Arrangements
Arrangement Atomic Atomic Mass Neutron
Number Number Number
Isotope Same Different Different

Isobar Different Same Different

Isotone Different Different Same

Isomer Same Same Same

 Combinations of Atoms
Atoms of various elements may combine
to form structures called molecules.
A compound is any quantity of one type
of molecule.
 Radioactivity
Some atoms have nuclei that contain
excess energy or an unstable nucleus. To
reach stability, the nucleus
spontaneously emits particles and energy
to transform itself into another atom. This
process is called radioactive disintegration
or radioactive decay.
 Radioactivity
These atoms are called radionuclides. Any
nuclear arrangement is called a nuclide
while only those at under go decay are
radionuclides.
When an atom contains too many or too
few neutrons, it will under go radioactive
decay.
 Radioactivity
There are only two sources of naturally
occurring radioisotopes.
They were formed when the earth was
formed.
They are exposed to cosmic radiation in the
upper atmosphere.
Artificially produced radioisotopes have
been identified for almost every element.
 Radioactivity
There are many ways
by which
radioisotopes can
decay to reach
stability but only two
are of particular
importance.
Beta emission
Alpha emission
 Radioactivity
During Beta emission , an electron like
particle is ejected from the nucleus with
considerable kinetic energy. The neutron
is transformed into a proton.
Most elements are capable of Beta
emission.
 Radioactivity
Alpha emission is much more violent. An
alpha particle consists of two neutrons and
two protons.
The atom loses two units of positive
charge and four of mass.
It must be a very unstable to under go
alpha emission.
 Radioactivity
Some radioisotopes are pure beta emitters
and some are pure alpha emitters but
most emit gamma rays simultaneously
with the particles.
Radioactive materials disintegrate at an
ever decreasing rate. The half life is the
time it takes for the quantity of radioactivity
to be reduced by 50%.
 Radioactivity
The concept of half life is essential to
radiology. It is used daily in nuclear
medicine.
Its parallel in x-ray terminology is Half
Value layer
 Radiation
There are two types of ionizing radiation.
Particulate radiation
Alpha particles
Beta particles
Electromagnetic Radiation
X-rays
Gamma Rays
 Alpha Particles
Alpha particles have atomic mass of 4 with
a positive charge. Because of its mass, it
easily transfers its kinetic energy to the
orbital electrons resulting in ionization.
Alpha particles are emitted by the nuclei of
heavy elements.
The average alpha particle has 4 to 7
MeV.
 Beta Particles
Beta particles have no atomic mass and
carry a negative charge. The only
difference between an electron and a beta
particle is its origin.
It has 0 to 7 MeV Kinetic energy and can
penetrate 2 cm of tissue.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Gamma rays and x-rays are often called
photons. A photon is the smallest unit of
electromagnetic radiation.
Photons have no mass or charge and
travel at the speed of light.
Like beta particles, the difference between
gamma rays and x-rays is their point of
origin.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus
of a radioisotope. They have 0-5 MeV and
can penetrate 30 cm of tissue
X-rays are produced outside the nucleus
in the electron shells. They have 0-100
MeV and can penetrate 30 cm of tissue.
 Chapter 5 Electromagnetic
Radiation
A photon is the smallest element of
electromagnetic energy.
Photons are energy disturbances moving
through space at the speed of light.
Photons have no mass but they do have
electric and magnetic fields.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
A field is an interaction between different
energies, forces or masses that can not be
seen but can be described mathematically.
Electromagnetic Radiation can be
represented by the sine-wave model.
Sine-waves have amplitude.Amplitude is
one half the range from crest to valley over
a sine wave.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
The important properties of the sine-wave
model are frequency(f) and wavelength()
and velocity.
Frequency is the number of wavelengths
passing a point per second.
Frequency is identified as oscillations per
second and measured in hertz (Hz).
 Electromagnetic Radiation
Wavelength is the distance from one crest
to another or from any point in the wave to
the next corresponding point.
The wave parameters are very important.
A change in one affects the value of one
or both of the others.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
At a given velocity, wavelength and
frequency are inversely proportional.
The Wave Formula
Velocity= Frequency x Wavelength
 Electromagnetic Radiation
With EMF we know the velocity so the
formula is simplified.
c= f or f= c/ or = c/f
As frequency increases, wavelength
decreases and vice versa
For electromagnetic radiation, frequency
and wavelength are inversely proportional.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum includes
the entire range of electromagnetic
radiation.
The frequency range is from about 102 to
1024 Hz
Photon wavelengths range from 107 to
10-16m.
Grouped together, these radiations make
up the electromagnetic spectrum.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Three important
ranges.
Visible light
Radio frequency
X-radiation
Others include:
UV
IR and microwave
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
EMF can be
measured in three
formats
Energy (eV) used to
describe x-rays
Frequency (Hz)
Wavelength (m)
 Visible Light
Measured in
wavelength.
A prism is used to
refract or change the
direction of the
photons.
Only form of EMF that
we can sense.
 Forms of Light
Visible light ranges from 700nm to 400nm
wavelength.
Infrared light have longer wavelength
than visible light but shorter than
microwaves.
Ultraviolet light is located between visible
light and ionizing radiation.
 Radiofrequency
AM radio, FM radio and Television are
other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
With radio, the frequency is used to
identify the station.
Short wavelength radiofrequency are
referred to as microwaves.
 Ionizing Radiation
Unlike visible light or radiofrequency,
ionizing electromagnetic radiation is
characterized by the energy contained in
the photon.
When we use 70 kVp, the photon will have
energy varying from 0 to 70 keV.
 Ionizing Radiation
The frequency is much higher and
wavelength much shorter for x-rays
compared to any other form of
electromagnetic radiation.
Visible light identified by wavelength
Radiofrequency identified by frequency
X-rays identified by energy
 Ionizing Radiation
The only difference between X-rays and
gamma rays is their origin.
X-rays are produced outside the nucleus.
Gamma rays are produced inside the
nucleus of radioactive atoms.
 Wave-Particle Duality
A x-radiation photon and a visible light
photon are fundamentally the same except
that x-radiation photons have a much
higher frequency and shorter wavelength.
These differences change the way they
interact with matter.
Visible light tends to behave as waves.
 Wave-Particle Duality
X-radiation tends to behave more as
particles than waves.
Both types of photons exhibit both types of
behavior and this is referred to as the
wave-particle duality of radiation.
Photons interact with matter when the
matter is approximately the same size as
the photon wavelength.
 Wave-Particle Duality
Radio & television photons wavelength is
measured in meters and interact with long
metal rods called antennae.
Microwave are measured in centimeters
and react most easily with popcorn &
hotdogs.
 Wave-Particle Duality
Visible light wavelength is measured in
micrometers or nanometers, interacts with
living cells such as the rods and cones in
the eye.
Ultraviolet light interacts with molecules.
X-rays interact with atoms and electrons.
All radiation with wavelengths longer than
x-rays interact primarily as a wave.
 Wave model: Visible Light
Vision is result of specially developed
organ that sense a very narrow portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
When a visible light photon strikes an
object, it sets the molecule of the object
into vibration.
 Wave model: Visible Light
The orbital electrons become excited by
the higher energy. This energy is
immediately irradiated as another photon
of light. This is referred to as reflection.
Atomic and molecular structure determine
which wavelength of light are reflected.
 Wave model: Visible Light
Light photons not reflected are either
absorbed or transmitted.
There are three degrees of absorption:
Transparency
Translucency
Opacity
 Degrees of Absorption
If all of the light is
transmitted almost
unaltered, it is
transparent.
If only some of the
light passes through ,
it is called
translucent.
 Degrees of Absorption
If all of the light is
absorbed, it is called
opaque.
Attenuation is the
sum of scattering
and absorption of
radiation.
 Radiopaque or Radiolucent
Terms used to
describe the
appearance of objects
on the x-ray film.
Objects that absorb
the radiation are
called radiopaque.
 Radiopaque or Radiolucent
Structures that
attenuate the x-rays
are referred to as
Radiolucent.
Bone is radiopaque.
Lung is radiolucent.
 Inverse Square Law
Radiation intensity is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the
source.
The reason for the decrease is the
radiation is spread over a wider area.
 Inverse Square Law
The Inverse Square Law is used in
radiography to adjust technical factors for
changes in distance.
It is also used for radiation protection. The
farther you are away from the source, the
lower the exposure.
 Particle Model: Quantum
Theory
Unlike other forms of electromagnetic
radiation, x-ray energy is measured in
electron volts (eV).
X-ray energies range from 1 to 50 MeV
X-ray wavelengths range from 10-9 to 10-
12m.

X-ray frequency range from 1018 to 1021Hz

 Range of X-ray Energies
Diagnostic Radiography uses the range of
30 kVp to 150 kVp.
Grenz rays with energies of 10 to 20 kVp
are used in dermatology.
Therapy uses energies from 200 to 1000
kVp
 X-ray Waveform
X-rays have both
electric and magnetic
fields.
One wave represents
the electric field and
one the magnetic field
varying at right angles
to each other.
 Plancks Quantum Theory
X-rays are created at the speed of light or
they dont exist at all.
The energy of a photon is directly
proportional to its frequency.
A photons energy is inversely
proportional to the photon wavelength.
 Matter and Energy
Like the law of the conservation of matter,
the law of conservation of energy states
that Energy can be neither created or
destroyed.
Plancks quantum physics and Einsteins
physics of relativity greatly extended these
theories.
 Matter and Energy
According to quantum physics and physics
of relativity, matter can be transformed into
energy and vise versa.
Although matter and energy are
interchangeable, it is energy from the x-ray
photon interacting with tissue and the
image receptor that forms the basis of x-
ray imaging.
 Mass Energy Relationship
Mass and energy are
two forms of the same
medium. This scale
shows the
equivalence of mass
measured in
kilograms to energy
measured in electron
volts.
The End of Lecture

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