A Boiler is a closed vessel inside which water is stored,

heated and circulated, either as hot water, steam or

superheated steam for the purpose of heating, powering
and/or producing electricity. The furnace of the boiler is
where the fuel and air are introduced to combust; fuel/air
mixtures are normally introduced into the furnace by using
burners, where the flames are formed. The resulting hot
gasses travel through a series of heat exchangers where
heat is transferred to the water and consequently steam is
produced in the boiler. The combustion gasses are finally
released to the atmosphere via the stack of exhaust section
of the boiler.
There are mainly two types of Boilers;

i) Water tube Boiler &

ii) Fire tube Boiler.

In fire tube Boiler, there are numbers of tubes through

which hot gases are passes and water surrounds these
tubes.

Water tube Boiler is reverse of the fire tube Boiler. In

Water tube Boiler the water is heated inside tubes and
hot gases surround these tubes.
Boilers can be classified by their combustion
method, by their application or by their type of
steam/water circulation.
As a general rule, the higher the boiler pressure, the higher the quality of feed water
required. Therefore the higher the pressure, the more chemical treatment is
concentrated outside the boiler in water preparation and less internal boiler water
treatment and condensate treatment is required.
Boilers are often classified by operating (throttle) pressure. These groupings are
arbitrary and there is much overlapping between groups, but for purposes of discussing
chemical treatment the following groupings are convenient:
Low pressure steaming boilers, operating below about 300 psig, that use
untreated or at best zeolite softened feed water to make steam primarily for HVAC and
humidification use. Feed water may or not be mechanically deaerated.
Medium pressure boilers, between about 300 and 900 psig, provide steam for
heating, power generation, transportation and others. Feed water is at least softened
and is normally demineralized and mechanically deaerated. Internal chemical treatment
is required to prevent boiler and condensate corrosion.
High pressure boilers, between 900 and 1200 psig, are used primarily for electric
power generation, in large industrial plants and power stations. Feed water is always
demineralized and mechanically deaerated. Chemical dosage are low, primarily for
alkalinity & corrosion control.
Very high pressure boilers, from above 1200 psig to super critical pressures are
found in large power generation station. They require the highest possible purity feed
water but only very small amounts of chemical treatment.
Fire tube boilers:
As the name implies, the basic structure of a fire tube boiler
consists of tubes, where fuel is burned and flue gas is
transported, located in a pressurized vessel containing water.
Usually boilers of this type are customized for liquid or
gaseous fuels, like oil, natural gas and biogases. Fire tube
boilers are used for supplying steam or warm water in small-
scale applications.
Natural circulation principle:
The water/steam circulation begins from
the feed water tank, from where feed
water is pumped. The feed water pump
(Figure 6) raises the pressure of the
feed water to the wanted boiler
pressure.
In practice, the final steam pressure
must be under 170 bar in order for the
natural circulation to work properly. The
feed water is then preheated in the
economizer almost up to the boiling
point of the water at the current
pressure.
To prevent the feed water from boiling in the economizer pipes the
economizer temperature is on purpose kept about 10 degrees under
the boiling temperature. From the economizer the feed water flows to
the steam drum of the boiler. In the steam drum the water is well
mixed with the existing water in the steam drum. This reduces
thermal stresses within the steam drum.
The saturated water flows next from the steam drum through
downcomer tubes to a mud drum (header). There are usually a
couple of downcomer tubes, which are unheated and situated
outside the boiler. The name "mud drum" is based on the fact
that a part of the impurities in the water will settle and this
'mud' can then be collected and removed from the drum.

The saturated water continues from the header to the riser

tubes and partially evaporates. The riser tubes are situated on
the walls of the boiler for efficient furnace wall cooling. The
rises tubes are sometimes also called generating tubes
because they absorb heat efficiently to the water/steam
mixture.
The riser tubes forms the evaporator unit in the boiler. After
risers, the water/steam mixture goes back to the steam drum. In
the steam drum water and steam are separated: the saturated
water will return to the downcomer tubes and the saturated
steam will continue to the superheater tubes. The purpose of
this separation is to protect the inside of the superheater tubes
and turbine for impurity deposition. The steam from the steam
drum continues to the superheater, where it is heated beyond its
saturation point. After the last superheater stage the steam exits
the boiler.
This type of circulation is called natural circulation, since there
is no water circulation pump in the circuit. The circulation
happens by itself due to the water/steam density differences
between the downcomers and risers.
(a) Feed Water: Boiler feed water is an essential part of boiler
operations. The feed water is put in to the steam drum from a feed
pump. In the steam drum the feed water is then turned into steam from
the heat. After the feed water is used it is then dumped to the main
condenser. From the condenser it is then pumped to the deaerated
feed tank. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are removed from the feed
water by deaeration. From this tank it then goes back to the steam
drum to complete its cycle. The feed water is never open to the
atmosphere. This cycle is known as a Closed system or Rankine
cycle.
Feed Water = Makeup Water + Condensate Return
(b) Make-up Water: The water used to make-up the loss of water and
steam in thermal system is called the make-up water. Generally the
make-up water shall not exceed 2%-4% of the evaporation capacity of
the boiler for the steam condensation type unit.

Makeup Water = Blow Down + Condensate Loss

(c) Saturated Steam: Saturated steam results when water is heated to
the boiling point and then vaporized with additional heat. If this steam is
then further heated above the saturation point, it becomes superheated
steam. Saturated steam occurs when steam and water are in
equilibrium (i.e. rate of water vaporization is equal to the rate of
condensation).

(d) Superheated steam: Super heated steam is steam at a

temperature that is higher than its vaporization (boiling) point at the
absolute pressure. It is steam which is formed at the temperature which
exceeds of saturated steam at the same pressure. Superheated steam
is used in turbines to improve thermal efficiency.
Pitting, Corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion cracking all may be
caused by superheated steam.
(e) Dry Steam: Dry Steam is steam that is at the temperature of
saturation, but does not contain water particles in suspension. It
has a very high dryness fraction, with almost no moisture.
Commercially, dry steam contains not more than one half of one
percent moisture. The presence of moisture in steam causes
deposition, corrosion and reduction of life expectancy of boilers or
other heat exchangers. Therefore, in heating applications, dry steam
is preferable, because it has a better energy exchange capacity and
does not cause corrosion.
(f) Live steam: Live steam is a common term for steam coming from
a boiler at full pressure.
(g) Condensate Water: The steam that has done the work in turbine
is condensed to water is called condensate water.
(h) Wet steam: Wet steam is a mixture of steam and liquid water.
It exists at a saturation temperature containing more than 5%
water. Wet steam is generated by heating water, which then turns
to steam at the first stage. If additional heat is added to wet
steam at a set pressure, the temperature remains the same until
all the liquid is evaporated. Only then does the the temperature
rise above saturation, allowing the formation of wet steam.
Wet steam may cause corrosion in vulnerable equipment such
as turbine blades, low pressure steam piping and heat
exchangers. Wet steam lowers the heat transfer efficiency of
steam, which results in an inefficient sterilization procedure.
Wet steam is also known as supersaturated steam.
1. What is corrosion?

The decay of metal due to the chemical or electrochemical reaction

between metal surface and surrounding media is called corrosion.
There are two types of corrosion

Chemical Corrosion: The surface of metal reacts with surrounding

media directly; no electric current is generated. The decay of metal like
is called Chemical Corrosion. The oxidation of the outer surface of
boiler tube by high temperature smoke, the steam water corrosion in
superheated steam, the corrosion of metal by lubricating oil without
water and so on are all chemical corrosion.

Electrochemical Corrosion: The corrosion of metal that there is

current is generated in the decay process is called Electrochemical
corrosion. The corrosion of metal in water solution or wet air is
Electrochemical corrosion. The corrosion of device that contact with
chemical processing water, feed water, boiler water, cooling water and
wet steam is all Electrochemical corrosion.
2. What is scale?
The solid adhered on the surface of the water side metal of the heated
surface of thermal equipment is called scale. It is the harmful to the safe
and economical operation of thermal operation. Although the scale is
composed of many kinds of chemical components, but it is often
composed mainly by a certain compound like Calcium & Magnesium
scale, silicate scale, ferric oxide scale, copper scale and so on.
Prevention of scale:
a) Preparation of high quality make-up water, remove the impurities
that are easy to form scale in make-up water completely.
b) Prevent the leakage of condenser tubes. The leakage must be
found and blocked in time. Avoid the entrance of the Ca2+ & Mg2+
or compounds of silicon or aluminium and some very small clay
carried by cooling water.
c) The quality of condensate water and drainage water shall be
controlled strictly.
d) The water treatment in the Boiler by add some chemicals to
control the quality of the boiler water.
Why should we be concerned about boiler feed water?
Good Feed water achieves the following three benefits:
1. Help to ensure maximum life out of its boilers, steam turbines,
condensers and pumps.
2. Reduce maintenance expenses.
3. Maintain optimal thermal performance
Boiler water is treated to prevent scaling, corrosion, foaming and priming.
Chemicals are put in to boiler water through the chemical feed tank to keep
the water within chemical range. These chemicals are mostly oxygen
scavengers and phosphates.
Boiler water treatment are two parts. (a) internal treatment: This is for boiler
feed water. Internal treatment protects against feed water hardness by
preventing precipitating of scale on the boiler tubes. This treatment also
protects against concentrations of dissolved and suspended solids in the
feed water without priming or foaming. These treatment chemicals also help
with the alkalinity of the feed water making it more of a base to help protect
against boiler corrosion. (b) External treatment: This is for make-up feed
water and the condensate part of the system.
As a general rule, higher the boiler pressure, the higher the quality of feed
water required. Therefore, the higher the pressure, the more chemical
treatment is concentrated outside the boiler in make up water preparation
and the less internal boiler water treament and condensate treatment is
required.
 Chemical treatment of feed water
Dissolved Oxygen control: Dissolved Oxygen can lead to severe
corrosion in the economizer section and in the boiler. It enters the
system from make up water, cooling water leaks, condensate storage
tank equilibrim with the atmosphere and pump seal leaks.
The most common effect of dissolved oxygen is to increase the
corrosion of the feed water heaters. Copper & Iron oxides are formed
which break loose and travel to the boiler. These metal oxides deposit on
the hottest part of the boiler tubes and create insulating deposites.
Oxygen problems are especialy severe where ammonia is present in
significant quanties. In the presence of oxygen, ammonia is very
corrosive to copper. Ammonia is used for feed water pH adjustment. It
can also be formed from the thermal breakdown of hydrazine.
3N2H4 = N2+ 4NH3
Ammonia cannot attack copper metal itself. It reacts only with cupric
state (Cu+2 ). In the feed water loop, these will be in the form of cupric
oxide (CuO) and hydroxide (Cu(OH)2). The cupric state can only form if
oxygen is present. So it is the combination of ammonia and oxygen that
is aggressive to copper alloys.
Method for Dissolved O2 Removal : Two
Method:
a) Mechanical stripping or deaeration: Shown
in the figure.
b) Chemical oxygen scavengers: O2
scavengers are reducing agents that reacts
with even the very low levels of O2 left in water
by good deaeration. They are normally added
to the storage section of the deaerator, to allow
time for reaction before feed water reaches the
boiler.

Hydrazine Hydrate: Hydrazine is a very

coomon oxygen scavenger. It is an inorganic
reducing agent of great power.The reaction of
hydrazine with oxygen is:
N2H4 + O2 = 2H2O + N2
At temperature greater than 250 F, hydrazine reacts with metal oxides:
N2H4 + 6Fe2O3 4Fe3O4 + 2H2O + N2

hydrazine hematite magnetite water

N2H4 + 4CuO 2Cu2O + 2H2O + N2

hydrazine cupric oxide Cuprous oxide water nitrogen

Ferric oxide is reduced to the familiar black, protective magnetite film and
cupric oxide is reduce to red cuprous oxide. These reactions passivate or
protect the metal surfaces in the boiler and hydrazine is used as a
passivating agent as well as an oxygen scavenger.
Hydrazine decomposes in the boiler water at 400-600F (250-1500psia)
3N2H4 = 4NH3 + N2
Feed rates of about 5 times stoichiometric are required for good oxygen
scavenging. For every 1 mg/l of oxygen feed about 5 mg/l of hydrazine.
The excess will break down to ammonia in the boiler and may cause
problems in copper condensate systems unless they are air free.
Foaming is nothing but the formation of foam. Bubbles of water
will enter the surface of water inside the boilers and results in
the formation of foam. Foam comes out of the boiler along with
the steam. Hence the steam becomes wet and the heat content
of the steam is reduced considerably. This type of wet steam
spoils the machine parts where it is used. The main cause for
foaming is the presence of dissolved salts in water. Hence soft
water should be used in boilers to avoid foaming.

Priming is violent and rapid boiling of water inside the boiler.

Due to priming the water particles mix up with the steam when it
comes out in the boiler. Like foaming, priming also reduces the
heat content of the steam and reduces the efficiency of the
steam. Main reason for priming
Defective design of the boiler.
Presence of large quantities of dissolved salts, oily matter,
alkaline and suspended matter.
Carryover
Carryover is defined as contamination of steam with droplets of
boiler water. Carry over can be due to entrainment of water drops in
steam or due to property of certain salt like silica in boiler water to
get vaporized and get into steam. The factors responsible for carry
over are
a) Amount of dissolved solids in boiler water. b) Chemical nature of
dissolve solids. c) Suspended solids in boiler water, d) Boiler
design, e) Boiler operating condition
Many factors, both mechanical and chemical contribute to carryover.
Mechanical Causes
Boiler design & operating conditions plays an important role in
carryover. Without going into details we can say that major design &
operating factors responsible for carryover are:
a) Design pressure, b) Steam drum size, c) Design generating rate, d)
Circulation rate.e) Arrangement of down comers and risers, f) Type of
mechanical separating equipment.
Chemical Causes
Priming and foaming are two terms used with carryover. Priming is the
surging of water in the steam outlet and is caused by factors like high
water level in boiler ,steaming rate, load fluctuations and boiler design.
Priming is thus due to mechanical factors.
Foaming is formation of stable bubbles. The bubbles dont break because
of high surface tension.
Causes of foaming are :
a.High Alkalinity : Caustic soda (NaOH) or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
have greater influence on foaming than neutral salts.
b. High TDS : High TDS causes carryover.
c. Suspended solids also cause foaming
d. Oil is not present n boiler water. It can enter boiler system through leaks in
condenser or other heat exchanger. Oil can also system because of lubrication of
steam driven reciprocating equipment. Oil is undesirable in boiler for two reason
a) It acts as binder to
form scale, b) It also causes foaming . Even a very small amount can cause
severe foaming and hence immediate action should be taken for complete
removal of oil.
e. Silica is another chemical which causes carryover. This is dealt separately.
Priming of a pump is very essential step in start up of a centrifugal
pump. Fact is that centrifugal pump are not capable of pumping air or
vapors. Priming is the process in which the impeller of a centrifugal pump
will get fully submerged in liquid without any air trap inside. This is
specially required when there is a first start up. But it is advisable to start
the pump only after priming.

Quality of Condensate water Quality of Feed water Quality of Boiler water

Sl. Testing limit Sl. Testing limit Sl Testing Limit
No Component No Component No
1 Hardness 2.0 1 Hardness 2.0 mol/l 1 pH 9.0-10.0
mol/l 2 pH 8.8-9.3 2 SiO2 0.5-1.20
mg/l
2 SiO2 20 g/l 3 N2H4 10-40 g/l
3 Cond. 60 s/cm
4 NH3 0.6-1.0
3 Cond. 5 s/cm
mg/l 4 PO43- 2-8 mg/l
4 Dissolve 40.0 20 g/l
5 SiO2 5 Na & Fe 20 g/l
O2 g/l
6 Cond. 5 s/cm
5 Na & Fe 20 g/l
7 Dissolve O2 7.0 g/l
8 Na & Fe 20 g/l
 ASME: American society of mechanical
engineers guidelines of water quality.

Saturated and Main Steam Generator Cooling

Water
Sl. Testing limit
No Component Sl. Testing limit
1 pH 8.8-9.3 No. Component
2 SiO2 20 g/l 1 pH 6.8
3 Na & Fe 20 g/l 2 Conductivity 5.0
s/cm

Circulating Cooling
Deaerator Water Water
Sl. Testing limit
No. Component
Sl. Testing limit
No Component 1 pH

1 Dissolve O2 40.0 g/l 2 Cl2 0.1-0.3

mg/l
3 Conductivity
Water Treatment Plant & Boiler Water
Conditioning
Water is the essential medium for steam generation. Conditioning it
properly can increase the efficiency of boiler and as well as extend the
boilers life. Treating boiler water also insures safe and reliable
operation: without proper treatment, severe problems can develop,
some so severe that boiler itself can be destroyed. Boiler water
problem generally falls into classes: deposit related and corrosion
related. Because the two often interact, it is very common to find a
boiler experiencing both simultaneously. There are many instances
where deposit causes corrosion and corrosion causes deposits. The
other problem is of steam purity.
Therefore the aim of the boiler water treatment is
1) To prevent the formation of scales and deposits on heating surface
2) To prevent corrosion in the boiler and steam system.
3) To maintain high level of steam purity.
Scaling
Scales formed in boiler systems can be divided into four groups:-
a)Scale due to calcium & magnesium, b) Scale due to iron oxide, c)
Scale due to copper, d) Scale due to silica
Scale forms as the solubilities of the scale forming salts in water decreases
and the temperature and concentration increases. When feed water
temperature is elevated to boiler water temperature, the solubility of scale
forming salt is decreased, and solid scale begins to form on the boiler
system.
Thus we can say that Scale formation is a function of two criteria
a) The concentration and solubility limits of the dissolved salts.
b) The retrograde solubility (inversely proportional to temperature)
characteristics of some salt.
Causes of deposit formation
Boiler deposits result from the impurities carried in with feed water. Their
source is either make up water containing mineral salt, condensate
containing process contaminants, corrosion products or in the case of
condensers in leaking cooling water. Deposits can also be formed due
to the internal chemicals used.
Corrosion is the destructive attack of metal by chemical or
electrochemical reaction. Corrosion is always because of chemical
reaction. Physical deterioration is termed as erosion, wear or galling.
Deterioration can be due to both chemical and physical attack.
Water corrosiveness is determined by the impurities present in it.
Oxygen, dissolved solids, and dissolved acids in water attack the
common construction material. Alkali can also be corrosive, at high
temperature, as in boiler.
Problems due to corrosion
1. Thinning of metal, 2. Development of crack, 3. Pitting of metal, 4.
Metal perforation
5. Interference with heat transfer, 6. Contamination of water
Corrosion is a complex problem and many factors influence
corrosion. The factors to be considered are physical, chemical and
biological.
Physical Factors
1. System construction, 2. System Pressure, 3. Temperature, 4. Flow
Velocity, 5. Water Chemistry
Chemical factors
Chemistry plays a very important role in corrosion. We have already
explained earlier that corrosion is electrochemical reaction and is
influenced by chemical factors like pH, alkalinity, dissolved salts and
others.
a) Alkalinity: Alkalinity in water is due to presence of Bicarbonates,
carbonates and hydroxyl ions. In raw water alkalinity is mainly due to
bicarbonates. Some times carbonates ions may also be present.
Hydroxyl ions normally get introduced during treatment of water.
Alkalinity is determined by using standard acid solution using methyl
or phenolphthalein indicator. Alkalinity determined by using methyl
orange indicator is termed as M-Alkalinity or Total Alkalinity. P-
Alkalinity is determined by using phenolphthalein as indicator. The
different type of alkalinity present in water supplies can be calculated
from M and P-Alkalinity value determined by titration. Alkalinity is the
ability of natural water to neutralize acid. This happens because of
buffering mechanism. Acid compounds having free H+ ions react with
CO3 and HCO3 ions and conversely OH ions also reacts with CO3 and
HCO3 ions.
CO32- + H+ HCO3-
HCO3- + H+ H2CO3
HCO3- + OH- CO32- + H2O
In either case acid or base is neutralized by the carbonate or bicarbonate.
Thus it can be seen that when Acid (or caustic ) is added to water having
high concentration of bicarbonate or carbonate the pH of water does not
change much compared to when the same amount of acid (or caustic) is
added to pure water. This is known as buffering capacity.
b) pH
When pure water dissociates, the number of hydrogen ions is equal to
number of hydroxyl ions. Such a solution is called neutral solution . pH is
defined as negative logarithm of H+ ions. Solution having pH less than 7
are acidic and those greater than 7 are basic. Low pH is Corrosive and
high pH is protective to pipe. Very high can cause scaling and deposits.
c) Dissolved Oxygen
Oxygen is considered has one of the most corrosive components in water
chemistry. Dissolved O2 with traces of chlorides or solids can cause
pitting corrosion of metallic surface. The resulting condition may be
severe, even at low pressure.
d) Dissolved Solids
Dissolved solids or salt content of water present as ion increases electrical
conductivity of water. Higher the conductivity, greater the potential for
corrosion. Some salts like CaCO3 are involved in scale forming and thereby
reducing corrosion.
e) Hardness
Hardness is generally associated with scale forming. Hardness is
composed primarily of Ca & Mg ions but may also include other metallic
ions like iron and manganese. All hardness ions have the property of
forming scales. One of the methods for corrosion control is by planned
deposition of CaCO3
f) Chloride & Sulphate
Chloride and sulphate ions inhibit the formation of scale by keeping
hardness ions in solution. Trace amount of Chlorides even with dissolved
oxygen can cause corrosion in boiler.
Type Of Corrosion
The type of corrosion classified with respect to outward appearance or
altered physical properties are
1. Uniform attack, 2. Pitting, 3. Cavitation erosion, 4. Dezincification &
parting, 5. Intergrannular corrosion & 6. Cracking
Oxygen Corrosion
Water coming out of deaerators has residual oxygen. As explained earlier
even a trace amount of oxygen can cause corrosion. This last trace of
oxygen is removed chemically. Sodium sulphite and hydrazine or one of
its product is used for removal of residual oxygen. Sodium sulphite is
used for low pressure boiler. Amine is preferred in high pressure boiler
because it does not add to TDS, unlike Sodium sulphite.
Effect of pH
Both high and low pH can cause corrosion in boiler. In acidic range the
protective layer of magnetite is not able to form and it cause corrosion. In
very high pH range the protective layer of magnetite breaks down and this
leads to caustic corrosion. For corrosion prevention maintaining proper pH
and alkalinity is very important.
Acid Corrosion
Excess acid cause damage at more rapid rate than excess base. Simply
because this happens, it should not be taken as an operating guideline.
Magnetite film forms due to corrosion but once formed adhere tightly and
acts as a barrier between boiler water and steel. Acids are capable of
destroying this film and hence water chemistry must be so maintained that
the protective film is not disrupted. This can be done by keeping the water
in alkaline range.
Caustic Corrosion.
Feed water is maintained at alkaline pH. Alkali is added to provide
optimum pH in the feed water to prevent corrosion of piping and
equipment. Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) is generally added for this
purpose. Sometimes sodium carbonate is also added. Even though
caustic soda is added with control, there are occasions when pH increases
and cause corrosion as shown by the equation below. The damaged
caused by excess alkali is because it dissolves the magnetite film forming
sodium hypo ferrite and sodium ferrite both of which are soluble in hot
concentrated caustic soda. In addition concentrated reacts directly and
more rapidly with iron to form hydrogen and sodium ferrorate.
Caustic corrosion is prevented by coordinate caustic program. Phosphate
ions act as a buffer ion. It does not allow pH to increase in water, no matter
how concentrated OH ions become. Buffer ions are also useful in avoiding
similar high OH concentration which leads to stress corrosion cracking
(caustic embrittlement). In low pressure boiler sodium nitrate is added in a
definite ratio to caustic alkalinity to prevent caustic embrittlement.
Boiler Blodown:
Even treated demineralized (DM) boiler
feed water contains small amouts of
dissolved mineral salts. Ongoing water
evaporation in steam boilers and fresh
boiler makeup increases the
concentration of these minerals and
lead to the solids accumulation in either
dissolved or suspended form.
01) Dissolved solids promote carryover
of water with steam, causing water
hammer and damaging piping, valves
or other equipment. Carryover also
raises the moisture content in the
steam, affecting proper operation of
downstream equipment that uses
steam.
Surface water blow down is often done
02) Suspended solids causes sludge or continuously to reduce the level of
sediment in the boiler. These affect the
heat transfer capabilities of the dissolved solids, and bottom blow
pressure vessel and leads to problems down is performed periodically to
ranging from poor fuel-to-steam remove sludge from the bottom of the
efficiency to pressure vessel damage. boiler.
Chemical dosing of the boiler feedwater also leads to the presence of
suspended solids in the boiler. These will inevitably collect in the bottom
of the boiler in the form of sludge, and are removed by a process known
as bottom blowdown. Steam boilers should be blown down daily once or
twice to maintain recomended dissolved solids levels and to remove
sludge and sediment.
Boiler Blowdown Benefits
Less water, fuel and treatment chemicals needed;
Less maintenance and repair cost (minimized carryover
and deposits);
Saves manual supervision for other tasks (with
automatic control);
Cleaner and more efficient steam;
Reduced operating cost (reduction in consumption,
disposal, treatment and heating of water);
Minimized energy loss from boiler blowdown can save
about 2 percent of a facilitys total energy use with an
average simple payback of less than one year.
The maximum recommended concentration limits according to the
American Boiler Manufacturers Association (ABMA) is listed in the
table below.
ABMA Recommended Feed water Chemistry Limits
Boiler Operating Pressure TDS, ppm Total Total suspended
(psig) Alkalinity, solid, ppm
ppm
0 - 50 2,500 500
51-300 3500 700 15
301-450 3000 600 10
451-600 2500 500 8
601-750 1000 200 3
751-900 750 150 2
901-1,000 625 125 1
Schematic Diagram for Chemical Dosing System
Boiler blowdown calculations. TDS in the boiler is controlled by the rate of
blowdown from a boiler.
a. The water added to the boiler must equal water loss from the boiler.
F=E+B
where: F = feedwater, pounds / hour (lb/hr),
E = steam generated, lb/hr & B = blowdown, lb/hr
b. The blowdown can be related to the feedwater using the cycles of concentration
(COC):
C = F B, or F = B x C
where: C = COC, no units
F = feedwater, lb/hr & B = blowdown, lb/hr
It is common to express blowdown as a percent:
%B =100 C
c. The relationship between feedwater, blowdown, steam generation, and COC is
represented as (terms are as defined above):
(1) F = B x C from b. above
(2) F = E + B from a. above
(3) B x C = E + B replacing F in equation 2) with equation (1)
(4) B x C - B = E rearranging equation (3)
(5) B x (C-1) = E rearranging equation (4)
(6) B = E (C-1) rearranging equation (5)
d. Blow down is rarely metered, but it can be calculated if any two of the feedwater,
COC, or steam generation quantities are known. Steam is usually metered. The COC
can be calculated by measuring the conductivity or TDS in the boiler water and in
the feed water (note that the blow down TDS is the same as the boiler TDS):
C = BTDS FTDS or Bmho Fmho
where: C = COC, no unit
BTDS = blow down TDS, ppm, FTDS = feed water TDS, ppm
Bmho = blow down conductivity, mhos & Fmho = feed water conductivity, mhos
Determining feed water requirements.
Example 3-1:
1. A 250 psig boiler operates at a conductivity level of 5,000 Fmho. The boiler feed
water has a conductivity of 250 mho. The COC is calculated as follows:
C = Bmho Fmho or 5,000 250 = 20
2. The percent blow down is:
%B = 100 C or 100 20 = 5%
3. If the boiler is producing 40,000 pounds of steam per hour, the blow down must
be:
B = E (C - 1) = 40,000 (20 - 1) = 2,105 lb/hr
4. The feed water is calculated to be:
F = E + B = 40,000 + 2,105 = 42,105 lb/hr
Determining makeup requirements.
Makeup is the water from the external water treatment system provided to the
deaerator. The amount or percentage makeup required in a boiler is affected by
blowdown, steam leaks, consumption of steam in process equipment and
condensate leaks. In a tight system where steam is not used in process equipment,
about 5 to 10 percent makeup would be desirable. However, some poorly
controlled or maintained systems can approach 100 percent makeup.
a. Makeup is the difference between the condensate return and the feedwater.
M=F-R
where: M = makeup, lb/hr
F = feedwater, lb/hr
R = condensate return, lb/hr
b. The condensate will not contain any appreciable level of dissolved solids (or
conductivity) unless there is a source of contamination within the system. This
allows the determination of percent makeup using the equation:
%M = Fmho Mmho x 100

where: %M = percent makeup

Fmho = Feed water conductivity, mhos
Mmho = makeup conductivity, mhos
Example 3-2:
1. Makeup conductivity is 900 Fmho for the boiler in example 3-1. The percent
makeup is calculated:
%M = Fmho Mmho x 100 = 275 900 x 100 = 30%

2. This means that the makeup is 30 percent of the feedwater. The condensate
return percent is calculated:
%R = 100 - %M = 100 - 30 = 70%
3. The quantity of makeup is calculated:
M = %M 100 x F=30 100 x 42,105 = 12,632 lb/hr
4. The condensate return quantity is calculated:
R = F - M = 42,105 - 12,632 = 29,473 lb/hr
c. The difference between steam produced and the condensate returned
represents both steam and condensate losses in the system. These losses may
include steam leaks, consumption of steam by the process equipment and
condensate leaks. The total losses can be calculated as follows:
L=E-R
where: L = total steam and condensate losses, lb/hr
E = steam generated, lb/hr & R = condensate return, lb/hr
Example 3-3:
1. The steam losses for the boiler described in examples 3-1 and 3-2 can be
calculated:
L = E - R = 40,000 - 29,473 = 10,527 lb/hr
Determining chemical treatment required. Chemical treatment programs
involve selecting the type of chemical to be used and establishing a treatment
level. Blowdown calculations can be used to determine the amount of chemical
that needs to be added to meet the treatment objectives.
Example 3-4:
1. The boiler in examples 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3 is to be operated with a phosphate
level of 60 ppm (as PO4) in the boiler water. The blowdown has been determined
to be 2,105 pounds per hour. The required phosphate addition of a daily basis
must equal the phosphate that is discharged with the blowdown plus that used up
in precipitating calcium phosphate. Phosphates required to replace that lost
in blowdown is calculated as follows:
Phosphate Loss = B x Level
(2,105 lb/hr) x (24 hr/day) x (60 ppm)
=
1,000,000
= 3.03 lb/day phosphate
2. The treatment chemical selected is sodium hexametaphosphate which contains
90.5 percent phosphate. This means there is 0.905 pounds phosphate
per pound chemical:
Chemical Required = Phosphate loss 0.095
= 3.03 0.905 = 3.35 lb/day
Alkalinity relationships:
a. Sources of alkalinity. The three basic sources of alkalinity in water are:
alkalinity resulting from the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-), the carbonate ion (CO3=),
and the hydroxyl ion (OH-). The amount of each of these in water can be
determined by titrating with an acid to certain pH levels (end points) using
phenolphthalein (P alkalinity) and a methyl orange (M alkalinity) end points.

b. Relationship of P, M and OH alkalinities. Test procedures for determining

the P and M alkalinities are included in commercially available test kits. The OH
alkalinity can be determined by a specific test or it can be calculated from the P
and M alkalinities. The OH alkalinity is the result of the hydroxyl ion (OH-) in the
water, and is also known as "caustic alkalinity" or "causticity". The relationship
between the measured P and M alkalinities and level of hydroxyl, carbonate,
and bicarbonate forms of the alkalinity is shown in table 6-4 and is discussed
below.
Example 6-1:
P = 86 ppm, M = 118 ppm; situation 2 exists (P > 1/2M);
Hydroxyl = 2 x 86 118 = 54 ppm
Causticity = hydroxyl alkalinity 3 = 543 = 18 ppm
Carbonate = 2 x (118 - 86) = 64 ppm
Bicarbonate = 0 ppm
Check: Total = 54 + 64 + 0 = 118 ppm
(1) The tests for P alkalinity and M alkalinity may give the same result. This
means that all of the alkalinity is due to hydroxyl ions. There is no carbonate or
bicarbonate present. (This is rare, but occurs when a caustic solution unexposed to
air).
(2) The P alkalinity may be greater than one-half of the M alkalinity. This
indicates that there is hydroxyl and carbonate alkalinity, but no bicarbonate
alkalinity.
(3) The P alkalinity may be equal to one-half of the M alkalinity. This indicates
that all the alkalinity is due to carbonate. There is no bicarbonate alkalinity, and the
hydroxyl alkalinity is insignificant.
(4) The P alkalinity is less than one-half of the M alkalinity. This indicates that
carbonates and bicarbonates are present.
(5) The P alkalinity is zero. The M alkalinity is due to bicarbonates only.
ALKALINITY RELATIONSHIP BASED ON P AND M TESTS
Situation Hydroxyl Level of Alkalinity Bicarbonate
Contributed by Carbonate
1. P = M M 0 0
2. P > 1/2M 2P - M 2 (M - P) 0
3. P = 1/2M 0 M 0
4. P < 1/2M 0 2P M - 2P
5. P = 0 0 0 M