Ac Circuits

AC Circuits
w
i m wL
m

im
wC im R
iron
V1 V2
N1 N2
(primary) (secondary)
Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 1
Lecture Outline
Driven Series LCR Circuit:

General solution
Resonance condition
Resonant frequency
Sharpness of resonance = Q
Power considerations
Power factor depends on impedance
Transformers
Voltage changes
Faradays Law in action gives induced primary current.
Power considerations
Text Reference: Chapter 33.4-6

Phasors
m
R: V in phase with i VR Ri R m sin wt iR sin wt
R
Q
C: V lags i by 90 VC m sin wt i C wC m cos wt
C
m
L: V leads i by 90 VL L
di L
m sin wt iL
wL
cos wt
dt
A phasor is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum value of a quantity (eg V or I)

and which rotates counterclockwise in a 2-d plane with angular velocity w. Recall
uniform circular motion:
x r coswt
y r sinwt y y
w
The projections of r (on
the vertical y axis) execute x
sinusoidal oscillation.
Suppose: xx 00,,
r1
r1
r1 Phasors
.... r1 for L,C,R
nn
11
V
i
i w
R V
f(f(xx))000
R
VR Ri m sinwt
wt
r1
xx 00,, r1 .... r1
r1
n 11 t
00 22 44 66
11
xx
i i w
1
VC i m cos wt f( x ) 00
wC wt
r1
V
C
x 0 , .. r1 V
n 1 C
0 2 4 66
1.01 1
w
x
i V
L i
VL wLi m cos wt f( x ) 0
0
wt
V
L
1.01 1
0 2 4 6 Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 4
Series LCR
AC Circuit
R
Back to the original problem: the loop
equation gives: C L

L
d 2Q

Q
R
dQ
m sin wt
dt 2 C dt
Assume a solution of the form: i i m sin(wt )

Here all unknowns, (im,) , must be found from the loop eqn; the initial conditions
have been taken care of by taking the emf to be: m sinwt.
To solve this problem graphically, first write down expressions

for the voltages across R,C, and L and then plot the appropriate
phasor diagram.
Phasors: LCR
Given: m sin wt
Assume: R

C L

w
i m wL
From these equations, we can draw the phasor
diagram to the right.
This picture corresponds to a snapshot at t=0. The

m
projections of these phasors along the vertical axis

are the actual values of the voltages at the given
time.

im
wC im R
Phasors: LCR
i m XL w
R
C m
L

i m XC im R
The phasor diagram has been relabeled in terms of the
reactances defined from:
1
X L wL XC
wC
The unknowns (im,) can now be solved for

graphically since the vector sum of the voltages
VL + VC + VR must sum to the driving emf .
Lecture 20, ACT 3
A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.
For what frequencies w of the voltage
source is the current through the resistor
R L
largest? w
C
1
(a) w small (b) w large (c) w
LC

Conceptual Question
A driven RLC circuit is connected as shown.
For what frequencies w of the voltage
source is the current through the resistor
R L
largest? w
C
1
(a) w small (b) w large (c) w
LC
This is NOT a series RLC circuit. We cannot blindly apply our
techniques for solving the circuit. We must think a little bit.
However, we can use the frequency dependence of the impedances
(reactances) to answer this question.
The reactance of an inductor = XL = wL.
The reactance of a capacitor = XC = 1/(wC).
Therefore,
in the low frequency limit, XL 0 and XC .
Therefore, as w 0, the current will flow mostly through the
inductor; the current through the capacitor approaches 0.
in the high frequency limit, XL and XC 0 .
Therefore, as w , the current will flow mostly through the
capacitor, approaching a maximum imax = /R.
Phasors:LCR
i m XL
i m (XL-X C) im R
m

m

i m XC im R X L XC
tan
R

X L wL XC
1
2m i 2m R 2 X L XC
2
wC

Z R 2 X L XC
2
m m
im
R 2 X L XC
2 Z

Phasors:Tips
i m XL
This phasor diagram was drawn as a y
snapshot of time t=0 with the voltages
being given as the projections along the
y-axis. m
Sometimes, in working problems, it is
x
easier to draw the diagram at a time when
the current is along the x-axis (when i=0).
i m XC im R
imXL
m
From this diagram, we can also create a
triangle which allows us to calculate the
impedance Z:
imR
Z
X L XC

imXC
R
Full Phasor Diagram Impedance Triangle
Phasors:LCR
We have found the general solution for the driven LCR circuit:
imXL i i m sin(wt )
the loop
m w eqn
tan
X L XC
R
i mZ
m
imR im
Z
imXC XL
Z
X L wL
XL - XC
XC
1
wC R
XC
Z R 2 X L XC
2

Lagging & Leading
The phase between the current and the driving emf depends on the
relative magnitudes of the inductive and capacitive reactances.
X XC X L wL
im m tan L 1
Z R XC
wC
XL
Z XL
XL
Z
R R R
Z
XC XC
XC
XL > XC XL < XC XL = XC
>0 <0 =0
current current current
LAGS LEADS IN PHASE
applied voltage applied voltage applied voltage
Conceptual Question
The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a

generator with voltage = msinwt. The time
dependence of the current i which flows in the
circuit is shown in the plot.
How should w be changed to
1A bring the current and driving
voltage into phase?
(a) increase w (b) decrease w (c) impossible
1B Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?

(a) (b) i (c) i
i

Lecture 21, ACT 1
r1
xx 00, .... r1
The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a nn
im
generator with voltage = msinwt. The time 1.01 11
dependence of the current i which flows in the R io

circuit is shown in the plot. C L f(ixx)) 00
f( 0

1A bring the current and driving 1.01-i 1
m1
00 2 2 t 4 4 6 6
voltage into phase? .53 xx 6.81

From the plot, it is clear that the current is LEADING the applied voltage.
XL
Therefore, the Therefore, XC X L
i
phasor diagram must To bring the current into phase
look like this: with the applied voltage, we need

to increase XL and decrease XC.
XC Increasing w will do both!!

Lecture 21, ACT 1
r1
x 0, .. r1
The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a n
i1
generator with voltage = msinwt. The time 1.01 m
dependence of the current i which flows in the R io
circuit is shown in the plot. C L f(ix ) 00

1A bring the current and driving 1.01-i 1
m
0 2 t 4 6
voltage into phase? .53 x 6.81

1B Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?
w
(a) (b) i (c) i
w
i
The sign of i is This one looks

The projection
correct at t=0. just right!!
of i along the
However, it = -30
vertical axis is
soon will become
negative here.
negative!
no way jose
nope Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 16
Resonance
For fixed R,C,L the current im will be a maximum at the resonant frequency w0
which makes the impedance Z purely resistive.
ie: m m
im
R 2 X L XC
Z 2
reaches a maximum when: X L XC
the frequency at which this condition is obtained is given from:

1 1
woL wo
w oC LC
Note that this resonant frequency is identical to the natural
frequency of the LC circuit by itself!
At this frequency, the current and the driving voltage are in
phase! X XC
tan L 0
R Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 17
Resonance
The current in an LCR circuit depends on the values of the elements and
on the driving frequency through the relation
m m
im
R 2 X L XC
Z 2
1
im m m cos r1
R 1 tan 2 R x 0.0 , .. r1
n
m
1
Suppose you plot the current versus w, the R0
source voltage frequency, you would get: R=Ro
f( x )
im0.5
g( x )
R=2Ro
00
00 1 2w2o
wx
Power in LCR Circuit
The power supplied by the emf in a series LCR circuit depends on the frequency w.
It will turn out that the maximum power is supplied at the resonant frequency w0.
The instantaneous power (for some frequency, w) delivered at

time t is given by:
Remember what
this stands for
The most useful quantity to consider here is not the

instantaneous power but rather the average power delivered in
a cycle.
To evaluate the average on the right, we first expand the sin(wt-

) term.
Expanding,
Taking the averages,

1
1.01+1
sinwtcoswt
(Product of even and odd function = 0)
Generally: h( x ) 0
0
1.01 1
-1
00 2
wt
4 62p
r1
x 0.0 ,0 .. r1 x 6.28
Putting it all back together again, n
1
+1
1/2 0 sin2wt
h( x ) 0
0
-11
00
wt
2 4 2p6
Physics 1304: Lecture
x 18, Pg 20
This result is often rewritten in terms of rms values:
1 1
rms m i rms im P( t ) rmsi rms cos
2 2
Power delivered depends on the phase, , the power factor
phase depends on the values of L, C, R, and w

therefore...

Power in RLC
P( t ) rmsi rms cos
Power, as well as current, peaks at w = w 0. The sharpness of the resonance depends

on the values of the components.
Recall:
Therefore,
We can write this in the following manner (you can do the algebra):
w
x
wo
Lw o
introducing the curious factors Q and x... Q
R
The Q factor
A parameter Q is often defined to describe the sharpness of
resonance peaks in both mechanical and electrical oscillating
systems. Q is defined as
where Umax is max energy stored in the system and DU is the

energy dissipated in one cycle
period
For RLC circuit, Umax is (e.g.)
And losses only in R, namely
This gives
And for completeness, note

Power in RLC
wres
For Q > few, Q
fwhm
r1
x 0.0 , .. r1
n
Q=3
2 rms
1
R0
FWHM
R=Ro
f( x )
<P>0.5
g( x )
R=2Ro
00
00 1 2wo2
w
x

Conceptual Question 2
Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

R R
What is the relation between the quality
factors, QI and QII , of the two circuits? CI L CII L

2A

(a) QII < QI (b) QII = QI (c) QII > QI
2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?
(a) PII < PI (b) PII = PI (c) PII > PI

Lecture 21, ACT 2

R R

2A


w 0L
We know the definition of Q: Q
R
At first glance, it looks like Q is independent of C.
At second glance, we see this cannot be true, since the resonant
frequency wo depends on C!
1
w0 Doubling C decreases wo by sqrt(2)!
LC
\ Doubling C decreases Q by sqrt(2)!
Doubling C increases the width of the resonance!

Lecture 21, ACT 2

R R

2A

2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

the generator to the circuit when each circuit is operated at its
resonant frequency?
(a) PII < PI (b) PII = PI (c) PII > PI
At the resonant frequency, the impedance of the circuit is purely
resistive.
Since the resistances in each circuit are the same, the impedances at
the resonant frequency for each circuit are equal.
Therefore, The power delivered by the generator to each circuit is
identical.
Power Transmission
How can we transport power from power stations to homes? Why do we use high tension lines?
At home, the AC voltage obtained from outlets in this country is 120V at
60Hz.
Transmission of power is typically at very high voltages ( eg ~500 kV)
Transformers are used to raise the voltage for transmission and lower the
voltage for use. Well describe these next.
But why?
Calculate ohmic losses in the transmission lines:
Define efficiency of transmission:
Keep R
small
Pout iVin i 2 R iR Vin Pin R
1 1 2
Pin iVin Vin Vin V in Make
Vin big
Note for fixed input power and line resistance, the inefficiency 1/V2
Example: Quebec to Montreal With Vin=735kV, = 80%.

1000 km R= 220W The efficiency goes to zero quickly if
suppose Pin = 500 MW Vin were lowered!
Transformers
AC voltages can be stepped up
or stepped down by the use of iron
transformers.

The AC current in the primary circuit creates a
time-varying magnetic field in the iron V1 V2
This induces an emf on the secondary N1 N2

windings due to the mutual inductance of the
two sets of coils. (primary) (secondary)
The iron is used to maximize the mutual inductance. We

assume that the entire flux produced by each turn of the
primary is trapped in the iron.
Ideal Transformers (no load)
No resistance losses All flux contained in iron Nothing connected on secondary
The primary circuit is just an AC voltage source in series with an iron

inductor. The change in flux produced in each turn is given by:
V1 V2
d turn V1

dt N1
The change in flux per turn in the secondary coil is the N1 N2
same as the change in flux per turn in the primary coil
(ideal case). The induced voltage appearing across the
secondary coil is given by:
d turn N 2
V2 N 2 V1
dt N1
Therefore,
N2 > N1 secondary V2 is larger than primary V1 (step-up)
N1 > N2 secondary V2 is smaller than primary V1 (step-down)
Note: no load means no current in secondary. The primary current,

termed the magnetizing current is small!
Ideal Transformers with a Load
iron
What happens when we connect a resistive load to
the secondary coil?
Flux produced by primary coil V1 V2 R
induces an emf in secondary
emf in secondary produces current i2
N1 N2
V
i2 2 (primary) (secondary)
R
This current produces a flux in the
secondary coil N2i2, which opposes the
original flux -- Lenzs law
This changing flux appears in the primary
circuit as well; the sense of it is to reduce
the emf in the primary...
However, V1 is a voltage source.
Therefore, there must be an increased N2
current i1 (supplied by the voltage source) in i1 i2
the primary which produces a flux N1i1 N1
which exactly cancels the flux produced by
i2.
Transformers with a Load
iron
With a resistive load in the secondary, the primary current
is given by:
V1 V2 R
N1 N2
V1 N12
Req R 2
i1 N2
This is the equivalent resistance seen by the source.

Lecture 21, ACT 3
iron
The primary coil of an ideal transformer is connected to an AC
voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
and 200 turns in the secondary.
V1 V2 R
If V1 = 120 V, what is the potential drop across
the resistor R ?
3A
N1 N2
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V
3B If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R,

what is the current in the primary ?
(a) 8 A (b) 16 A (c) 32 A

Lecture 21, ACT 3
iron
voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary
V1 V2 R
the resistor R ?
3A
N1 N2
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V
The ratio of turns, (N2/N1) = (200/50) = 4

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is equal to the ratio
of turns, (V2/V1) = (N2/N1)
Therefore, (V2/V1) = 480 V

iron
Lecture 21, ACT 3
voltage source as shown. There are 50 turns in the primary V1 V2 R
the resistor R ? N1 N2
3A (primary) (secondary)
(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V

The ratio of turns, (N2/N1) = (200/50) = 4
The ratio (V2/V1) = (N2/N1). Therefore, (V2/V1) = 480 V
3B If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R, what

is the current in the primary ?
(a) 8 A (b) 16 A (c) 32 A
Gee, we didnt talk about power yet.
But, lets assume energy is conservedsince it usually is around here
Therefore, 960 W should be produced in the primary
P1 = V1 I1 implies that 960W/120V = 8 A

Transformers with a Load
iron
To get that last ACT, you had to use a

general philosophy -- energy V1 V2 R
conservation.
An expression for the RMS power flow N1 N2

looks like this: (secondary)
(primary)
N1 N2
Prms V1rmsi1rms V2 rms i 2 rms V2 rmsi 2 rms
N2 N1
Note: This equation simply says that all power delivered by the
generator is dissipated in the resistor ! Energy conservation!!


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Driven Series LCR Circuit:

Text Reference: Chapter 33.4-6

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 2

A phasor is a vector whose magnitude is the maximum value of a quantity (eg V or I)

Assume a solution of the form: i i m sin(wt )

To solve this problem graphically, first write down expressions

This picture corresponds to a snapshot at t=0. The

The unknowns (im,) can now be solved for

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 8

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 10

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 12

The series LCR circuit shown is driven by a

1B Which of the following phasors represents the current i at t=0?

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 14

dependence of the current i which flows in the R io

How should w be changed to

voltage into phase? .53 xx 6.81

(a) increase w (b) decrease w (c) impossible

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 15

dependence of the current i which flows in the R io

circuit is shown in the plot. C L f(ix ) 00

How should w be changed to

voltage into phase? .53 x 6.81

(a) increase w (b) decrease w (c) impossible

The sign of i is This one looks

reaches a maximum when: X L XC

the frequency at which this condition is obtained is given from:

The instantaneous power (for some frequency, w) delivered at

The most useful quantity to consider here is not the

To evaluate the average on the right, we first expand the sin(wt-

Taking the averages,

This result is often rewritten in terms of rms values:

Power delivered depends on the phase, , the power factor

phase depends on the values of L, C, R, and w

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 21

P( t ) rmsi rms cos

Power, as well as current, peaks at w = w 0. The sharpness of the resonance depends

where Umax is max energy stored in the system and DU is the

And losses only in R, namely

And for completeness, note

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 24

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

(a) QII < QI (b) QII = QI (c) QII > QI

2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 25

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

(a) QII < QI (b) QII = QI (c) QII > QI

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 26

Consider the two circuits shown where CII = 2 CI.

(a) QII < QI (b) QII = QI (c) QII > QI

2B What is the relation between PI and PII , the power delivered by

Example: Quebec to Montreal With Vin=735kV, = 80%.

This induces an emf on the secondary N1 N2

The iron is used to maximize the mutual inductance. We

The primary circuit is just an AC voltage source in series with an iron

Note: no load means no current in secondary. The primary current,

This is the equivalent resistance seen by the source.

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 33

(a) 30 V (b) 120 V (c) 480 V

3B If 960 W are dissipated in the resistor R,

(a) 8 A (b) 16 A (c) 32 A

Physics 1304: Lecture 18, Pg 34