Lecture 3 (WEEK 3):

(Chapter 10)

Respiration
During Exercise
EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance, 5th edition
Scott K. Powers & Edward T. Howley

Presentation revised and updated by

MOHD SANI MADON
ALI MD NADZALAN
UPSI 2015 (c) 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Objectives
Explain the principle physiological function of the
pulmonary system
Outline the major anatomical components of the
respiratory system
List major muscles involved in inspiration &
expiration at rest & during exercise
Discuss the importance of matching blood flow
to alveolar ventilation in the lung
Explain how gases are transported across the
blood-gas interface in the lung

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Objectives
Discuss the major transportation
modes of O2 & CO2 in the blood
Discuss the effects of temp, pH, &
levels of 2,3 DPG on the oxygen-
hemoglobin dissociation curve
Describe the ventilatory response to
constant load, steady-state exercise

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Objectives
Describe the ventilatory response to
incremental exercise
Identify the location & function of
chemoreceptors and
mechanoreceptors that are thought to
play a role in the regulation of
breathing
Discuss the neural-humoral theory of
respiratory control during exercise

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Introduction
The Respiratory System
Provides a means of gas
exchange between the
environment and the body
Plays a role in the regulation of
acid-base balance during
exercise

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Respiration
1. Pulmonary respiration
Ventilation (breathing) and the
exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) in the
lungs
2. Cellular respiration
Relates to O2 utilization and CO2
production by the tissues
This chapter is concerned with pulmonary
respiration, and respiration will be used to
mean such

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Function of the Lungs
Primary purpose is to provide a means of gas
exchange between the external environment
and the body (O2 in, CO2 out from blood)
Ventilation refers to the mechanical process of
moving air into and out of lungs
Diffusion is the random movement of
molecules from an area of high concentration
to an area of lower concentration
O2 tension in lung > in blood
CO2 tension in blood > in lung

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Function of the Lungs cont
Diffusion in respiratory system occurs
rapidly because;
large surface area in within lungs
Very short diffusion distance between
blood and gas in lungs

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FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Organs :
a. Nose (nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses)
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx
d. Trachea
e. Bronchi
f. Bronchioles
g. Alveoli
h. Lungs
i. Pleurae
j. Diaphragm (respiratory muscles)
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Major Organs
of the
Respiratory
System

Fig 10.1
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Position of
the Lungs,
Diaphragm,
and Pleura

Fig 10.2
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 Each lung covered by:
a. Visceral pleura (outer surface of lungs)
b. Parietal pleura (lined the thoracic wall and
diaphragm)
Pleural fluid reduces friction during breathing
movement
The pressure in pleural cavity (intrapleural
pressure) is less than atmospheric and becomes
even lower during inspiration, causing air to inflate
the lungs.
This condition is important to prevent collapse of
fragile air sacs within lungs.
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Conducting & Respiratory Zones

Fig 10.2
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 Functionally, respiratory system
consists of 2 zones:
A. conducting zone
B. respiratory zone

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Conducting Zone

Includes all respiratory passageways

that conduct air to and from the lungs
This zone also cleanse or filter
(purify), humidify (moisten), and
warm incoming air
Composed of nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchial tree (bronchi,
bronchioles, terminal bronchioles)

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Conducting zone
In general, human breathe through the nose
until ventilation is increased to approximately
20-30 liters per minute, at which time the
mouth will become primary passageway for air
Regardless of the temperature or humidity of
the environment, the air that reaches the lung
is warmed and is saturated with water vapor.
This warming and humidification of air serves
to protect body temperature and prevents the
delicate tissue from desiccation (dry)

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Conducting zone
Filtration process is important to prevent lung
damage due to the collection of inhaled
particles in the respiratory zone
Filtration & cleaning process have 2 ways:
Mucus traps small, inhaled particles. When trapped,
it is moved toward the pharynx via ciliary action,
where it can be either swallowed or expectorated.
Macrophages that reside primarily in alveoli engulf
particles that reach the alveoli.
Both actions are shown to be hindered by cigaratte
smoke and air pollutions.

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Respiratory zone

The actual site of gas exchange

Composed of:
1. Respiratory bronchioles
2. Alveolar ducts and sacs
3. Alveoli

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Respiratory Zone
Gas exchange in lungs occurs across about 300
million tiny (0.25-0.50mm diameter) alveoli
This enormous structure provide large surface
area for diffusion
Rate of diffusion is further assisted by the fact
that each alveolus is only 1 cell layer thick, so
that blood gas barrier is only 2 cell layers thick
(alveolar cell & capillary cell)

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Respiratory Zone cont
Although 300 million alveoli provide ideal
structure for gas exchange, the fragility of
these tiny bubbles present some problems for
the lung.
Eg. Because surface tension (pressure exerted
due to the properties of water) of the liquid
lining the alveoli, relatively large forces
develop, which tend to collapse alveoli.
Fortunately, some of alveolar cells (called type
II) synthesize & release a material called
surfactant, which lowers the surface tension of
alveoli and thus prevent their collapse.

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Pathway of Air to Alveoli

Fig 10.4

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Mechanics of Breathing
Movement of air from environment into lungs is
called pulmonary ventilation & occur via
process known as bulk flow
Bulk flow refer to movement of molecules
along a passageway due to a pressure
difference between the 2 ends of passageway.
Inspiration: pressure in lungs < atmospheric
Expiration: pressure in lungs > atmospheric

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Mechanics of Breathing
Inspiration
Diaphragm pushes downward, lowering
intrapulmonary pressure
Expiration
Diaphragm relaxes, raising
intrapulmonary pressure
Resistance to airflow
Largely determined by airway diameter

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 MECHANICS OF BREATHING

Inspiration (Inhalation)
Ribs and sternum moved by the external
intercostals muscles
Diaphragm contracts, flattening down toward the
abdomen (move inferiorly)
This actions expand the thoracic cage, in turn
expanding the lungs
The air within them has more space to fill (the
pressure within the lungs decrease)
The pressure in the lung is less than the pressure
of the at outside the body - air rushes into the
lungs to reduce this pressure difference
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Force breathing/ inspiration:
The scalenes and sternocleidomastoid
in the neck and the pectorals in the
chest help raise the ribs even more
than during regular breathing

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 Changes in anterior- Changes in lateral
posterior and superior- dimensions
Sequence of events inferior dimensions (superior view)
1 Inspiratory muscles
contract (diaphragm Ribs are elevated
descends; rib cage rises). and sternum flares
as external
2 Thoracic cavity volume
intercostals
increases. contract.
3 Lungs are stretched; External
intrapulmonary volume intercostals
increases. contract.
4 Intrapulmonary pressure
drops (to 1 mm Hg).

5 Air (gases) flows into

lungs down its pressure Diaphragm
gradient until intrapulmonary moves inferiorly
pressure is 0 (equal to during contraction.
atmospheric pressure).

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Figure reserved.
(1 of 2)
Expiration (Exhalation)
Diaphragm relaxes and returns to its
normal upward position (move
superiorly)
External intercostals muscle relax, the
ribs and sternum lower back into their
resting positions
The elastic nature of the lung tissue
causes it to recoil to its resting size
This increases the pressure in the
thorax - air is forced out of the lungs
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 Force breathing/expiration:
The internal intercostals muscles pull the
ribs down, assisted by the latissimus
dorsi, quadratus lumborum, rectus
abdominus, internal oblique muscles

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 Changes in anterior- Changes in
Sequence posterior and superior- lateral dimensions
of events inferior dimensions (superior view)
1 Inspiratory muscles
relax (diaphragm rises; rib Ribs and sternum
cage descends due to are depressed
recoil of costal cartilages). as external
intercostals
2 Thoracic cavity volume relax.
decreases.

3 Elastic lungs recoil

External
passively; intrapulmonary
volume decreases.
intercostals
relax.
4 Intrapulmonary pres-
sure rises (to +1 mm Hg).
Diaphragm
5 Air (gases) flows out of moves
lungs down its pressure superiorly
gradient until intra- as it relaxes.
pulmonary pressure is 0.

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Figure reserved.
(2 of 2)
The Mechanics of
Inspiration and Expiration

Fig 10.6

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Muscles of Respiration

Fig 10.7
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Airway Resistance

Airflow rate depends on pressure

difference at the 2 ends of airway and
resistance to flow provided by the
airway.

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Airway Resistance
Most important variable contributing to airway
resistance is the diameter of airway
Airways that reduced in size due to disease
offer more resistance to flow than healthy,
open airways.
Resistance of blood flow increased 16 times
when radius of blood vessel reduced by 11/2, so
just imagine what will happen to airflow for
patient with COPD and athma during exercise
(10-20x greater pulmonary ventilation)

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A closer look 10.1
Respiratory muscles & exercises
Respiratory muscle function similarly as locomotor
muscles. Primary task is to act upon chest wall to move
gas in & out of lungs to maintain arterial blood gas & pH
homeostasis.
Prolonged (>120 min) & high intensity exercises (90-
100% VO2max) can promote respiratory muscle fatigue.
Regular endurance training increases respiratory muscle
oxidative capacity & improves respiratory muscle
endurance.
New evidence reveals regular exercise training also
increases oxidative capacity of upper airway muscles.
This is important because this muscles plays a key role
in maintaining open airways to reduce the work of
breathing during exercise.

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Clinical applications 10.1
Exercise-Induced Asthma
Asthma is a disease that promotes a reversible
narrowing of the airways (called a bronchospasm).
This reduction in airway diameter results in an increased
work of breathing, and individuals suffering from asthma
generally report being short of breadth (dyspnea).
Having bronchospasm during & immediately after
exercise is called exercise-induced asthma.
If severe, it become impossible for the individual to
exercise at even low intensities.

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Clinical applications 10.2
Exercise & Chronic Obstructive Lung
Disease
COPD: decreased expiratory airflow resulting from
increased airway resistance
COPD: constant narrowing of airways, ALWAYS
Asthma: reversible narrowing, COME & GO
COPD often resulted from combination of;
Chronic bronchitis (lung disorder that results in
constant production of mucus within airways result in
blockage)
Emphysema (decreased elastic support of airways
resulting in airway collapse & increased airway
resistance)
2 greatest risk developing COPD are tobacco smoking &
family history of emphysema

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Pulmonary Ventilation (V)
The amount of air moved in or out of
the lungs per minute
Product of tidal volume (VT)
and breathing frequency (f)

V = VT x f

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Pulmonary Ventilation (V)
Dead-space ventilation (VD)
unused ventilation, volume of inspired
gas that do not reaches the respiratory
zone, just remain in conducting airways
Does not participate in gas exchange
Anatomical dead space: conducting zone
Alveolar ventilation (VA)
Volume of inspired gas that reaches the
respiratory zone

V = VA + VD
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 Pulmonary ventilation is not equally distributed
throughout the lung.
Basal (bottom) region receives more ventilation
than apex (top) region, particularly during
quiet breathing.
This changes to some degree during exercise,
with the apical (top) regions of lung received
an increased percentage of total ventilation.

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Pulmonary Volumes
and Capacities
Measured by spirometry
Vital capacity (VC)
Maximum amount of air that can be expired
following a maximum inspiration
Residual volume (RV)
Air remaining in the lungs after a maximum
expiration
Total lung capacity (TLC)
Amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum
inspiration
Sum of VC and RV

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 Definitions of Pulmonary Volumes and
Capacities
Term Definitions
Lung Volumes
Tidal Volume The volume of gas inspired or expired during an unforced respiratory
cycle
Inspiratory reserve The volume of gas that can be inspired at the end of a tidal inspiration
Expiratory reserve The volume of gas that can be expired at the end of a tidal expiration
Residual volume The volume of gas left in the lungs after a maximal expiration

Lung Capacities
Total lung capacity The total amount of gas in the lungs at the end of a maximal inspiration
Vital capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be expired after a maximum
inspiration
Inspiratory capacity The maximum amount of gas that can be inspired at the end of a tidal
expiration
Functional residual
capacity The amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a normal quiet tidal
expiration

Table
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reserved.
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Spirometry
Measurement of pulmonary volumes and rate of expired
airflow
Useful for diagnosing lung diseases
Chronic obstructive lung disease (COPD)
Spirometric tests to test airway obstruction
Vital capacity (VC)
Maximal volume of air that can be expired after
maximal inspiration
Forced expiratory volume (FEV1)
Volume of air expired in 1 s during maximal
expiration
FEV1/VC ratio
80% is normal

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A Computerized Spirometer

Figure
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reserved.
(c) 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. AllFigure 10.10
rights reserved.
Pulmonary Volumes
and Capacities

Fig 10.9

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Partial Pressure of Gases
Daltons Law
The total pressure of a gas mixture is
equal to the sum of the pressure that
each gas would exert independently
Calculation of partial pressure:

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 Diffusion of Gases
Ficks law of diffusion
The rate of gas transfer ( V gas) is proportional
to the tissue area, the diffusion coefficient of
the gas, and the difference in the partial
pressure of the gas on the two sides of the
tissue, and inversely proportional to the
thickness.

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Henrys Law
Amount of O2 & CO2 dissolved in blood is
dependent on temperature of blood, partial
pressure of gas & solubility of gas.
Since blood temperature (1-3C) & solubility of
gas remain constant, partial pressure plays key
role to determine amount of gas dissolved in
blood.
PO2 in alveoli (105 mm Hg) > in blood (40 mm
Hg), so O2 diffuses into blood.
PCO2 in blood (46 mm Hg) > in lung (40 mm
Hg), so CO2 diffuses into alveolus)

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Partial Pressure and
Gas Exchange

Fig 10.10
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Blood Flow to
the Lung
Pulmonary circuit
Same rate of blood
flow as systemic
circuit
Lower pressure due
to low vascular
resistance

Fig 10.11
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Blood Flow to the Lung
During periods of increased pulmonary blood
flow during exercise, the resistance in
pulmonary vascular system falls due to the
distension of vessels and the recruitment of
previously unused capillaries
This decrease allows lung blood flow to
increase during exercise with relatively small
increases in pulmonary arterial pressure

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Blood Flow to
the Lung
When standing, most of
the blood flow is to the
base of the lung due to
gravitational force
During light exercise,
blood flow to the apex
increase
During supine position,
blood flow uniform
In upside down position,
blood flow to the apex
greatly exceeds than
base Fig 10.12
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Ventilation-Perfusion
Relationships
Ventilation/perfusion ratio
Indicates matching of blood flow to
ventilation
Ideal: ~1.0 for optimum gas exchange
Base
Overperfused (ratio <1.0)
Apex
Underperfused (ratio >1.0)

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Ventilation/Perfusion Ratios

Fig 10.13
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Effects of exercise on V/Q ratio
Still not clear, need more research
Light exercise may improve V/Q relationships
Heavy exercise may result in a small V/Q
inequality, and thus minor impairment in gas
exchange
Whether increase in V/Q inequality is due to
low ventilation or low perfusion is not clear

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