Ultrasonics Level 3

Fundamentals of Shadow Methods

Sound Imaging
Piezoelectric Materials Scanning Methods
Composite and Phased General Testing
Array Transducers Procedures
Other Transducers Evaluation Methods
Pulse Echo Systems Ultrasonic Techniques
Transit Time Methods Codes and Standards
 Fundamentals of Sound
Consider from two points of view

Material parameters

Wave Parameters
 Material Parameters
Particle Displacement

Particle Velocity

Modulus of Elasticity

Density
 Particle Displacement
Total length movement of one discrete particle.

In metals very small compared to wave length

displacement sound pressure

impedance
 Particle Velocity
The rate at which a discrete particle oscillates

Velocity = Modulus of Elasticity

Density
 Modulus of Elasticity
The ratio of stress to strain within a material

Used in engineering to determine the amount of deformation

for a given load.

Modulus of Elasticity = Stress

Strain
 Density
Mass per unit volume (Density = mass/volume)

As density increases velocity decrease for a given Modulus

of Elasticity
 Sound Attenuation
Loss of sound as it travels through a material
Caused by: Scatter
Absorption
Beam Spread
 Wave Parameters

Wave length

Frequency

Sound Pressure

Wave Velocity
 Wave Length
Is the distance between two planes in which the particles
are in the same state of motion.

= velocity
frequency
 Effect of
Diameter and
Frequency on
Beam Profile
 Review Profile Formulas

Near Zone = D2F/4V

Sin (1/2 Angle Beam Divergence) = V*1.22/DF (absolute edge)

= V*1.08/DF (20dB edge)

= V*.56/DF (6dB edge)

 Beam Geometry
x
Transducer

Maximum Energy

Near Far
Field Field

x
 Beam Cross-section
View on Total energy loss
X-X 90% energy loss

50% energy loss

Max energy at
beam centre

Beam can be elliptical

typically from angle probes
 Beam Spread Calculation

K.l q
Sin q =
D
K = constant factor
50% edge = 0.56
90% edge = 1.08
EG: 1.22 x 1.5mm
Extreme edge = 1.22
10mm
D = crystal diameter
l = wavelength 1.83 = 0.183
=
10
Inverse sine 0.183 = 10.50
Review Sound Pressure Formulas
Relative measure of sound pressure in dB

= 20 log10 (h1/h2)

Where h1 and h2 are the screen heights being compared

 Review Question
Material is steel, the transducer is 12mm, 5.0 MHz

Calculate:

Beam spread (absolute edge)

Wave length

Near Zone
 Answer
Beam Spread

Sin = 1.2 V/DF

= 1.2 * .5890*106 / 1.2*5*106
= .117
= 6.8 (1/2 angle)

= V/F
=.12 cm

NZ = D2F/4V
=(1.2)2*5*106/4*.5890*106
=3.67 cm
Perpendicular Incidence of Sound
Waves

2
RE =
[ ] Z2-Z1
Z2+Z1

4Z2Z1
DE =
(Z2+Z1)2
 Refraction

Sin 1 = Sin 2
V1 V2

Snells Law
No Refraction
< 1 st Critical Angle
At 1 st Critical Angle
> 1 st Critical Angle
At 2 nd Critical Angle
Refraction / Multiple Boundaries

OR
 Sound Pressures After Refraction
Incident range
25.6 to 61

Refracted range
30 to 80

Optimum refracted range

32 to 60
 Critical Angles
As a result of refraction

At the first critical angle

Compressional wave is refracted 90

At the second critical angle

Compressional wave is totally reflected
Shear wave is refracted 90

Above the second critical wave

Both the compressional and shear waves are totally
reflected
 Application of Refracted Waves
Although most ultrasonics are conducted either normal to the
surface (without refraction) or between the first and second
critical angles there are other applications.

Travel is parallel to the surface

Velocity equal to compressional wave in same material
Highly attenuated, shear waves are continuously being generated
Longitudinal Creeping Waves

Sometimes referred to as a head wave

Longitudinal Creeping Waves
Creep Wave Probe

Primary Creep Wave Cp.

85 deg. longitudinal

Transverse

Longitudinal

Secondary Creep Wave

Time of Flight Diffraction
 Diffraction
Thomas Young, 1802

Bending of sound (or light) behind an obstacle, in

accordance with Huygens Principle and is an
interference phenomenon.
Interaction of Wave with a
Crack-Like Defect
Time of Flight Diffraction to Size
a Defect
 Diffraction Techniques
Time of Flight Diffraction

When the forward diffracted wave is used

Reflected Tip Diffraction

When the backward diffracted wave is used

 Piezoelectric Sound Generation
1880, Currie Brothers
No single centre of Symmetry
32 Classes of Crystal Structures
21 of 32 do not have Centre of Symmetry
20 of 21 classes are Piezoelectric
Sintered Ceramic Crystals

Above the Currie Temp Below the Currie Temp

 Sintered Ceramic Crystals
Crystals that display this property of being distorted are
referred to as ferro-electric and have a dipole moment.

Not on an atomic level like a natural piezoelectric crystal

Sintered ceramic
heated above curie temperature
polarized by a strong electric field
cooled below curie temperature

If heated near the curie temperature the ferro-electric property

is lost
 Function
Applied stress (compression or tension) in the direction of
Polarization

Shifts the centre points of the structure electric charge

Resulting in a electric charge on the surface of the crystal

Metal films (electrodes) conduct charge which is proportional to

the stress
Polarization
Polarization
 Polarization
Three dimensional movement

Not always uniform, effected by edges

Thickness proportional to Natural Frequency

Piezoelectric Material Properties
 Piezoelectric Terms
Applied Voltage [U] r = receive, t = transmit

Change in thickness [ x]

Piezoelectric modulus [d33]

The higher the value the greater the thickness
variation for a given voltage

x = d33 Ut
 Piezoelectric Terms
Piezoelectric pressure constant [g33]
Sound Pressure [p]

Thickness [d]

Ur = g33dpx
 Piezoelectric Terms
Mechanical Quality [Q]
Measure of Oscillation loss, the lower
the value the higher the rate of absorption the
less backing material is required.
Acoustic Impedance [Z]
Z = V

For Complete transmission Z1 = Z2

Ceramic Piezoelectric Materials
Barium Titanate

Lead Zirconate Titanate

Lead Titanate

Lead Meta-niobate

Barium Sodium Niobate

Basic Probe Diagram
Single Element Probes
Dual Element Probes
Transverse Angle Beams
Compression Angle Beams
Immersion Probes
Focussed Immersion Probes
Delay Tip Probes
Water Column Probes
Captive Water Column Probe

transducer cable

water column

flexible
membrane
reflected pulse

transmitted pulse

electrode mark nugget

 Composite Transducers
E.g.. Paul Mayer, Krautkramer, ceramic rods in a polymer matrix
Linear Phased Array
Focusing Linear Phased Array
Focusing Linear Phased Array
Focusing Linear Phased Array
 Dynamic Focussing

Mechanical Displacement

FOCUS DEPTH (PULSER)

Beam displacement

DYNAMIC FOCUSING (RECEIVER)

c = velocity in material
Variable Focal Length Linear
Phased Array
Linear Phased Arrays
Steering Linear Phased Array
Steering Linear Phased Array
Steering and Focussing
Linear Scanning
Scanning Phased Arrays
Planar Phased Array
Annular Array
Phased Array
Scanning and Focusing Phased
Arrays
Focusing, Scanning Shear Wave
Phased Array
Phased Array Terminology
Other Methods of Transmitting
and Receiving Sound
Piezoelectric Indirect method, i.e. coupled

Direct Methods Surface forms part of the

transducer

Coupling layers can interfere with the transmission and

reception of sound

Piezoelectric elements have their own natural frequency,

Which modify the output of sound
 Mechanical Transducers

e.g. of transmission electro mechanical hammer (for concrete)

or rotating wire brush (for honey comb bonding)

Reception of this sound might be by pressure sensitive liquid

crystals
 Thermal Transducers

Heat shock thermal expansion and mechanical stresses

which initiate sound

Short duration, High Frequency

Micro wave, infrared, visible UV (electromagnetic)

Electron beam (corpuscular)

 Laser Transducers
1 to 100 MHz

Large operational distances up to 10m

Generated pulse is independent of incident angle

 Electrostatic Transducers
Direct or indirect through a coupling liquid
Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducers
 Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducers
Permanent Magnet (or electromagnet) produces a steady field

Coil which carries an RF current

Induces a eddy currents into the surface of the part

Eddy Currents interact with the steady field to produce Lorentz forces

Lorentz forces cause part to vibrate in sympathy with the RF signal

When receiving energy the vibrating part acts like a moving

conductor in a magnetic field which produces electricity
 Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducers
Lorentz Force
Electromagnetic force on a moving charge

EMATs
Allow noncontact generation and reception of sound

Although the power output is 40to 50 dB less than

Barium Titanate the power can be increased

Typical gaps at 2 MHz are about 1.0 to 1.5 mm

 Magnetostriction Transducers
Most ferromagnetic materials change shape in magnetic fields

Change in shape is both volumetric and linear

Below the Curie point of the material linear is much more significant

Direct Excitation
 Magnetostriction Transducers
Can be used to excite the part directly or indirectly

Magnetostrictive Transducer
(for indirect excitation)

Focused
Transducer
 Laser Excited Transducers
Sound deflection methods
Physical displacement method

Advantages
High resolution
Allow work on hot surfaces
Insensitive to electrical interference

A scan of a 1.2 mm plate

 Laser Excited Transducers

The deflections cell is filled with a liquid as sound travels

through the liquid it acts as a moving optical grating

The grating acts as a phase grating effected by wave length

and sound pressure
 Laser Excited Transducers
Reference Mirror
Beam Splitter
Test Piece

Laser

Photoelectric Cell Lens for rough surfaces

Michelson Interferometer
Pulse Echo Techniques
 Repetition Frequency Generator
Purpose
Trigger the transmitter pulse
Start the sweep

RFG Voltage
Delay
Transmitted Pulse

Echo Pattern
 Repetition Frequency Generator

Sweep Voltage

CRT Brightness

Sweep Working Interval

Delay Time Time
 Repetition Frequency Generator
Delay of Transmitted Pulse
Delayed to ensure initial pulse is visible

Can lead to an error in measuring thickness (zero error)

Error effect eliminated by using multiple echoes

for measurement and calibration
Repetition Frequency Generator
Maladjustment
When the repetition rate is too high for the sound path

Spurious Indications

Most instruments have the repetition rate switched with the range

Maintain sufficient brightness

and avoid spurious indications
 Transmitter
Generates a voltage of approximately 100 Volts

Pulse shape and frequency is modified by the transducer

 Receiver
Range 30 volts to 30volts

Dynamic range 120 dB, quick recovery

Voltage limiter Course Gain Control

Preamp Fine Gain Control

Main Amplifier Signal Treatment

(rectifier, video filter,
suppression,differentiation)

Video Amplifier Output

 Gates
Monitor a depth range for echoes

Signal is compared to a threshold voltage and logic circuit alarms

Can be more than one

Can be used to monitor back echo

Fixed on screen, fixed to an echo, slave

Digital information available: amplitude , time

Usually displayed on screen

 Distance Amplitude Correction
Two methods

1. Distance dependant threshold

Response voltage decreases with sweep voltage

2. Swept Gain
Amplification increases with distance
 Distance Amplitude Correction

Manually adjusted based on artificial flaws at different depths

Up to 8 linear sweep sections

Can be a computer learned function, based on stored DGS

curves for transducer diameter, frequency and material attenuation.
 DAC CURVE D.A.C.
Purpose:
Graphically compensates for material attenuation, nearfield
effects, beam spread, and surface roughness.
GAIN 47.0dB RANGE 0.200 in/div
REJ 0%
AMP. DAC 145% CURRENT 42%
100

DAC CURVE
80

60

40
NOTE:
Reflectors of the same size
20
will produce echoes which
peak along that curve despite
different locations within the
F1=DRAW DAC, F2=DONE, F3=CLEAR
GATE1 ALARM

FILENAME.023 ID>100
test piece.

ASME FORMAT
 T.V.G. or T.C.G.
Purpose:
Compensates for the changes in echo amplitude from equal
size reflectors at different distances due to attenuation and
beam spreading.
GAIN 47.0dB RANGE 0.200 in/div
REJ 0%
MIN DEPTH 0.990 1.000 in
100

80

TVG SETUP
60

40 TVG
NOTE:
20 Reflectors of the same size
will produce indications of
0 2 4 6 8 10 equal
GATE1 ALARM
screen height regardless of
FILENAME.023 ID>100
their distance in the material.
Instrument Technical Characteristics
Precision of Echo Amplitude
Calibrated Gain precision
Vertical linearity
Stability of transmitter voltage

Precision of Distance
Linearity of time base
Stability of PRR to sweep
Width of screen
Precision possible in reading the screen
Transducer sound field
damping
index points (angle beam)
 Instrument Technical Characteristics

Sensitivity
Transmitter energy
Limiting sensitivity of amplifier (noise & bandwidth)
Shape of the sound field
Damping and coupling losses

Depth Resolution
Quality of transducer, frequency, damping, suppression
of reverberation
Rise time of transmitter
Amplifier Characteristics
 Transit Time Methods

Wall thickness

Sound velocity

Physical strain
 Time Measurement
Comparing it with a known
(Two parallel circuits, adjusting the known)

Integration method
(Measuring between 2 successive echoes, not the first)

Counting method
Measuring oscillation counts between reflections
 Potential Errors
Time Measurement
Detour Error
Transmit/receive transducer, V-shaped path

At Lower Limit of Range Signal

Signal may be too low to trigger gate

Surface wave cross coupling on rough surfaces

 Other Methods
Frequency Methods
Resonance thickness testing

Shadow Methods
Through transmission
 Imaging Methods
Liquid Surface Relief Method

Referred to as a Scanning Laser Acoustic Microscope

light is more or less deflected by the surface
distortions, resolution in order of 1 wave length
 Imaging Methods

Ultrasonovision (RCA)

Metallic diagram being scanned by a laser system,

transparent mirror work as interferometer. Variations
in light intensity make up the image.
 Scanning Methods
A, B & C
 A Scan

Amplitude

Time or Distance
 B-SCAN Encoded Information
Encoded Modes document distance traveled and corresponding
depth information for all points along the B-SCAN.

Transducer Cable

Probe Encoder Cable

Holder
Couplant Feed
Connector Encoder

GATE2

Test Sample
GATE PEAK ON ALPHA
START MEM OFF
#
< >
REF DELETE ABC DEF
PRINT
dB
ITEM
SELECT
GATE
WIDTH
PULSER
SEND 1 2 3
REJECT WAVE ALARM MEMORY GHI JKL MNO
DEPTH DISPLAY
FREEZE SAVE
GATE
LEVEL %AMP STATUS
4 5 6
VEL2 THICK PRS TUV WXY

ENCODER SETUP
ZERO
OFFSET
RANGE VEL1 ZOOM ANGLE 7 8 9
QZ SYMBOL

2nd F
OPTION
SELECT F1 F2 F3 ID 0 MEMO

PANAMETRICS EPOCH III

EPOCH III
 B-SCAN Display
The B-SCAN will continue to run if the encoder is moved until:
- The scan is stopped or a new scan in initiated
- The memory buffer becomes full (See EPOCH III Memory &
Datalogger)
GAIN 55.0dB RANGE 1.200 in
Encoder Directional < DT 6.16 in DELAY 0.800 in
Current thickness reading
Arrow and Distance MIN DEPTH 1.090 1.090 in at cursor is displayed
Traveled value 0.800
(also shown below)
A Flashing A indicates
B B alarm condition is
I
50
present
D
I
R

Cursor indicates current

2.000 measurement point
F1=STOP, F2=ASCAN, F3=NEWSCAN
< DT 6.16 in

ID>
 C Scan Image Format

Plan view of
defective area
3D Image Format
 Scanning Methods
P Scan (Projected Image Scanning System)

Developed by Danish Welding Institute

Mechanical scanning, mechanical probe position measurements
 Scanning Methods
SUTAR
Similar to P Scan, also provides tabular data
Transducer positions are measured by air borne ultrasonics

Phased Array
 Scanning Methods
Acoustic Holography
Two step process
1. Capturing and storing image in a single plane
2. Recreating the image in multi-plane space
 Scanning Methods
Holography (Relief Method)

Phase Hologram

Reference
 Scanning Methods

Reference created electronically

 Acoustic Holography
Two Dimensional Reconstruction
General Testing Procedures

Convex
Reduced contact surface area (rectangular)
Increased divergence
Drop in sensitivity
Angle of refraction may increase (shear wave)
Convex Contact Surface
 Convex Contact Surface
Freq Transducer Radius Drop in
Dia of Curviture Sensitivity
MHz Inches Inches dB
1 0.5 4 15
1 0.5 20 6
2 1 4 15
2 1 20 4
2 0.375 4 3
2 0.375 20 0
4 1 4 15
4 1 20 4
4 0.375 4 6
4 0.375 20 1
 Convex Contact Surface

With a curved shoe

Angle of incidence changes with circumference
At higher angles (e.g. 70) surface waves may result
 Concave Surfaces
Contact may be difficult or impossible

Best done with immersion and focal lens

If it must be contact use a focal lens and adapter piece

General Testing Procedures

Considerations
Rough surfaces Higher viscosity
Premature drying
Ease of Removal
Damage to component (e.g. Corrosion)
Wet ability of surface
Cost
Toxicity
Cleanliness
Acoustic Impedance
Uniformity
 Coupling
Coupling can occur on smooth surfaces, with force

Free flowing water can be used up to 250 C

High velocity water into a gap can be used up to 400 C

Alternates
Water gap
Water delay lines
Immersion
 Confirming Coupling
Back echo
Sliding resistance
Grass on the base line

Automatically controlled
Corrective gain, using a back echo
Second transducer (receiving)
 Boundaries and Complex Paths
Boundaries Parallel to Sound Path

33
 Boundaries Parallel to Sound
Path

4MHz, 10mm dia, flaw depth 840mm, small constant size reflector
Caused by a phase shift in the reflected longitudinal wave.
 Small Fatigue Cracks From a
Parallel Surface
High Frequency

Large Diameter Transducer

Positioned away from the side wall

Because of the edge effects Back echoes cannot be used

to judge defect size.
 Triangular Reflection

Without mode conversion With mode conversion

Apparent distance traveled=
Distance traveled = 1.3d 1.67d (steel) & 1.78 (aluminum)
Interference Echoes
Interference Echoes
Interference Echoes
 Applied Ultrasonics

Flaws and inclusions generally in the direction parallel to grain flow

therefore UT beam should be perpendicular to grain flow
 Applied Ultrasonics

Consider the echo dynamics as the transducer is moved

Applied Ultrasonics

Consider the echo patterns

 Applied Ultrasonics

Position beam to hit the fatigue crack at close to perpendicular

and avoid interference echoes
Applied Ultrasonics
Consider the shape and orientation of the
discontinuities and the limitations of the
techniques available
 Applied Ultrasonics

Considerations
Rough surfaces (coupling losses)
Course Grain Structure ((scattering and attenuation)
T/R transducers (improve near surface resolution)
Angle probes (angles maybe different because of
velocity difference)
Angle probes may improve defect detection
(corner reflectors)
Highly Damped transducers (reduce the scatter noise)
Applied Ultrasonics
Recommended Frequencies
 Applied Ultrasonics

Conventional transducer

Highly damped transducer

 Applied Ultrasonics

Usually shear wave, the thinner the members the higher the angle

Consider
Code requirements
Laminations in the plate
Possible orientations of the flaws
External geometry (e.g. backing bars)
Defect size and shape

CSA W59-1989
 Applied Ultrasonics

Detection of the lack of bond

 Applied Ultrasonics

If the layers being bonded are not of equal thickness the bond
can be monitored by watching the back echo

If signal processing is used, Fourier Transforms can be used to

measure bond line thickness and detect lack of bond
 Evaluation Methods
DGS Diagrams

Mapping

Comparison to reference standards

Historical acceptance standards

 Evaluation Methods
Reference Standards
All ultrasonic procedures should be based on a reference
standard
If there is more than one reference standard they must
display the same ultrasonic response
It may be appropriate to have more than one standard
in case it becomes damaged or lost
Attenuators must be calibrated periodically
Equipment must be periodically checked against the
reference standard
Caution must be taken when comparing a discontinuity
against a artificial reflector
 Evaluation Methods

Involves looking at reflected pulse with a frequency analyzer

It finds uses in microstructure characterization,

determining mean grain size and porosity.

It is used in bond testing and composite laminate testing

to reveal features that cannot be easily identified
in the time domain.
 Codes and Standards
ASTM E317 Performance of Pulse Echo Testing Systems

ASTM E797 Measuring Thickness with Pulse Echo

ASTM E273 Ultrasonic Inspection of Longitudinal Welded Pipe

ASTM E1315 Ultrasonic Examination on Curved Surfaces

ASTM A609 Ultrasonic Examination of Some Castings

ASTM E1065 Evaluating Ultrasonic Search Units

CSA W59 Welded Construction (Ultrasonic portion, dynamic

structures)
The End