COLLEGE PHYSICS 1

ENGINEERING REVIEW
by

MARLYN G. JOVER, ChE, MAEd,

MSPHYSICS
Introduction and Mathematical
Concepts
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Standard units used for SI (Systems of Units), CGS
(cm-gm-sec units) and BE (British English Units)
Standard Prefixes Used to
Denote Multiples of Ten
Examples,
Centimeter = 0.01 m
Kilometer = 1000 m
GigaHertz = 1 x 10^9 Hz
The Conversion of Units
EXAMPLE
Express the speed limit of 65 miles/hour in terms of
meters/second.
Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is used to check mathematical
relations for the consistency of their dimensions.
Applying dimensional analysis to x = vt .

The dimension on the left of the equals sign matches that

on the right, so this relation is dimensionally correct.
Trigonometry
Scalars and Vectors
A scalar quantity is one that can be described with a
single number (including any units) giving its size or
magnitude. Some other common scalars are distances,
temperature (e.g., 20 C) and mass (e.g., 85 kg).

A quantity that deals inherently with both magnitude

and direction is called a vector quantity. Examples
are displacement and velocity etc.
Distance vs. Displacement
You drive the path, and your odometer goes up by 8
miles (your distance).
Your displacement is the shorter directed distance
from start to stop (green arrow).
What if you drove in a circle?

start

stop
Vector Addition and Subtraction
If two vectors are
colinear,
add the individual
magnitudes to get the
magnitude of the total
The vector addition is still
given according to
 The resultant has the same
magnitude and direction
regardless of the method
blu e
re d+ used.

Tip to tail method

Parallelogram method
Components of a Vector
A displacement vector r
has a magnitude of r =
175 m and points at an
angle of 50.0 relative to
the x axis. Find the x and
y components of this
vector.
 30.814 m/s
25
14.369 m/s
34 m/s
A helicopter is flying at 34 m/s at 25 S of W (south of west). The
magnitude of the horizontal component is 34 cos 25 30.814 m/s.
This is how fast the helicopter is traveling to the west. The
magnitude of the vertical component is 34 sin 25 14.369 m/s.
This is how fast its moving to the south.

Note that 30.814 + 14.369 > 34. Adding up vector components

gives the original vector (green + red = black), but adding up
the magnitudes of the components is meaningless.
Bugs Bunny, Yosemite Sam,
and the Tweety Bird are Sam: Tweety:
fighting over a giant 111 N 64 N
450 g Acme super ball. If
their forces remain constant,
38 43
how far, and in what
direction, will the ball move
in 3 s, assuming the super
ball is initially at rest ?

To answer this question, we must find a, so we can Bugs:

95 N
do kinematics. But in order to find a, we must first
find Fnet.

continued on next slide

 Sam: 68.3384 N 43.6479 N
111 N
Tweety: 64 N

38 43

87.4692 N 46.8066 N

Bugs:
95 N

First, all vectors are split into horiz. & vert. comps. Sams are purple,
Tweetys orange. Bugs is already done since hes purely vertical. The
vector sum of all components is the same as the sum of the original three
vectors. Avoid much rounding until the end.

continued on next slide

 68.3384 N Next we combine all parallel vectors
43.6479 N by adding or subtracting:
68.3384 + 43.6479 - 95
= 16.9863, and
87.4692 N 46.8066 N 87.4692 - 46.8066 = 40.6626.
A new picture shows the net vertical
and horizontal forces on the super
ball. Interpretation: Sam & Tweety
together slightly overpower Bugs
95 N
vertically by about 17 N. But Sam &
16.9863 N
Tweety oppose each other
horizontally, where Sam overpowers
Tweety by about 41 N.

40.6626 N

continued on next slide

 Fnet = 44.0679 N
16.9863 N

40.6626 N

Find Fnet using the Pythagorean theorem. Find using trig:

tan = 16.9863 N / 40.6626 N. The newtons cancel out, so =
tan-1(16.9863 / 40.6626)
= 22.6689. (tan-1 is the same as arctan.)
Therefore, the superball experiences a net force of about 44 N
in the direction of about 23 north of west. This is the combined
effect of all three cartoon characters.

continued on next slide

 a = F /m
net = 44.0679 N / 0.45 kg = 97.9287 m/s2. Note the conversion from
grams to kilograms, which is necessary since 1 m/s2 = 1 N / kg. As always, a
is in the same direction as Fnet.. a is constant for the full 3 s, since the forces
are constant.
Now its kinematics time: Using the fact
97.9287 m/s 2
x = v0 t + 0.5 a t 2
= 0 + 0.5 (97.9287)(3)2
22.6689
= 440.6792 m 441 m,
rounding at the end.

So the super ball will move about 441 m at about 23 N of W. To find out how far
north or west, use trig and find the components of the displacement vector.
The 3 Stooges are fighting over a 10 000 g (10 thousand gram) Snickers Bar. The
fight lasts 9.6 s, and their forces are constant. The floor on which theyre standing has
a huge coordinate system painted on it, and the candy bar is at the origin. What are its
final coordinates?

Hint: Find this Answer:

angle first. Curly: 1000 N ( -203.66 , 2246.22 )
in meters

Larry: 78
150 N
93
Moe:
500 N
Schmedrick and his dog, Rover, are goofing around on a train.
Schmed can throw a fast ball at 23 m/s. Rover can run at
9 m/s. The train goes 15 m/s.

Question 1: If Rover is sitting beside the tracks with a radar gun as the
train goes by, and Schmedrick is on the train throwing a fastball in the
direction of the train, how fast does Rover clock the ball?

v BT = velocity of the ball with respect to the train = 23 m/s

v TG = velocity of the train with respect to the ground = 15 m/s

v BG = velocity of the ball with respect to ground = 38 m/s

This is a simple example, but in general, to get the answer we add vectors:
v v v
= BT + TG (In this case we can simply add magnitudes since the
BG
vectors are parallel.)

continued on next slide

 vBG = vBT + vTG

Velocities
are not absolute; they depend on the motion of
the person who is doing the measuring.
Write a vector sum so that the inner subscripts match.
The outer subscripts give the subscripts for the resultant.
This trick works even when vectors dont line up.
Vector diagrams help (especially when we move to 2-D).

v BT = 23 m/s v TG = 15 m/s

v BG = 38 m/s
continued on next slide
Question 2: Lets choose the positive direction to be to the
right. If Schmedrick is standing still on the ground and Rover
is running to the right, then the velocity of Rover with respect
to Schmedrick = vRS = +9 m/s.
v RS

From Rovers perspective, though, he is the one who is still

and Schmedrick (and the rest of the landscape) is moving to
the left at 9 m/s. This means the velocity of Schmedrick with
respect to Rover = vSR = -9 m/s.
v SR

Therefore, vRS = - vSR

The moral of the story is that you get the opposite of a vector
if you reverse the subscripts.
continued on next slide
Question 3: If Rover is chasing the train as Schmed goes by
throwing a fastball, at what speed does Rover clock the ball
now?
Note, because Rover is chasing the train, he will measure a slower speed.
(In fact, if Rover could run at 38 m/s hed say the fastball is at rest.) This
time we need the velocity of the ball with respect to Rover:

vBR = vBT + vTG + vGR = vBT + vTG - vRG = 23 + 15 - 9

= 29 m/s.

Note how the inner subscripts match up again and the outer most give the
subscripts of the resultant. Also, we make use of the fact that
v GR = -v RG .

v BT = 23 m/s v TG = 15 m/s

v BG = 29 m/s v RG = 9 m/s
 campsite

0.3 m/s
Current

river
boat

Youre directly across a 20 m wide river from your buddies campsite. Your
only means of crossing is your trusty rowboat, which you can row at 0.5 m/s
in still water. If you aim your boat directly at the camp, youll end up to the
right of it because of the current. At what angle should you row in order to
trying to land right at the campsite, and how long will it take you to get
there?

continued on next slide

 campsite

0.3 m/s

0.3 m/s
Current
0.4 m/s
0.5 m/s

river
boat

Because of the current, your boat points in the direction of red but moves in the
direction of green. The Pythagorean theorem tells us that greens magnitude is 0.4
m/s. This is the speed youre moving with respect to the campsite. Thus,
t = d / v = (20 m) / (0.4 m/s) = 50 s. = tan-1(0.3 / 0.4) 36.9.

continued on next slide

The red vector is the velocity of the boat with respect to the
water, vBW, which is what your speedometer would read.
Blue is the velocity of the water w/ resp. to the camp, vWC.
Green is the velocity of the boat with respect to the camp, vBC.
The only thing that could vary in our problem was . It had to be
determined so that red + blue gave a vector pointing directly across the
river, which is the way you wanted to go.

continued on next slide

campsite

0.3 m/s

0.3 m/s
Current
0.4 m/s
0.5 m/s

river
 v WC

v BW = vel. of boat w/ respect to water

v v v WC = vel. of water w/ respect to camp

BW
BC

vBC = vel. of boat w/ respect to camp

Look how they add up:

vBW + vWC = vBC

The inner subscripts match; the out ones give subscripts of the resultant.
This technique works in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions w/ any number or vectors.
The river problem involved a right triangle. If it hadnt we
would have had to use either component techniques or the two
laws youll also do in trig class: Law of Sines & Law of
Cosines. C

b a

A c B

Law of Sines: sin A sin B sin C

= =
a b c
Side a is opposite angle A, b is opposite B, and c is opposite C.
 C
b a
c
A B
Law of Cosines:
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2 b c cosA
These two sides
are repeated.
This side is always opposite this angle.
It doesnt matter which side is called a, b, and c, so long as the two rules
above are followed. This law is like the Pythagorean theorem with a built in
correction term of -2 b c cos A. This term allows us to work with non-right
triangles. Note if A = 90, this term drops out (cos 90 = 0), and we have the
normal Pythagorean theorem.
 Suppose Wonder Woman is flying her invisible jet. Her onboard controls display a
velocity of 304 mph 10 E of N. A wind blows at 195 mph in the direction of 32 N of
E. What is her velocity with respect to Aqua Man, who is resting poolside down on
the ground?

vWA = vel. of Wonder Woman w/ resp. to the air

vAG = vel. of the air w/ resp. to the ground (and Aqua Man)
vWG = vel. of Wonder Woman w/ resp. to the ground (Aqua Man)
We know the first two vectors; we need to
find the third. First well find it using the laws
of sines & cosines, then well check the
result using components. Either way, we
need to make a vector diagram.

continued on next slide

 v AG 195
mph

32 32
80 100

vWG vWG
vWA

ph
304 m
10

80
vWA + vAG = vWG
The 80 angle at the lower right is the complement of the 10 angle. The two 80
angles are alternate interior. The 100 angle is the supplement of the 80 angle.
Now we know the angle between red and blue is 132.

continued on next slide

 By the law of cosines v 2 = (304)2 + (195)2 - 2 (304) (195)
cos 132. So, v = 458 mph. Note that the last term above
appears negative, but its actually positive, since cos 132 <
0. The law of sines says:
sin 132 sin
h =
195
mp v 195
132 So, sin = 195 sin 132 / 458, and 18.45

This mean the angle between green and the horizontal

v is 80 - 18.45 61.6
ph
304 m

Therefore, from Aqua Mans perspective, Wonder Woman is

flying at 458 mph at 61.6 N of E.
80
This time well add vectors via components as weve done before. Note that
because of the angles given here, we use cosine for the vertical comp. of red
but sine for the vertical comp. of blue. All units are mph.

p h
5 m
1 9 195
= 103.3343
vA G
32
165.3694
4 mph

299.3816

304
vWA = 30

10

52.789
continued on next slide
 Combine vertical & horiz. comps. separately and use Pythag.
theorem. = tan-1(218.1584 / 402.7159) = 28.4452. is
measured from the vertical, which is why its 10 more than .
218.1584 mph
52.789 165.3694
195
103.3343 103.3343
165.3694

402.7159 mph

h
mp
299.3816

299.3816

00
304

. 01
8
45

52.789
We ended up with same result for Wonder Woman
doing it in two different ways. Each way requires
some work. You will only want to use the laws of
sines & cosines if:
the vectors form a triangle.
youre dealing with exactly 3 vectors.
(If youre adding 3 vectors, the resultant makes
a total of 4, and this method would require using 2
separate triangles.)
Regardless of the method, draw a vector diagram! To
determine which two vectors add to the third, use the
subscript trick.
 The dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
It can be proven that a b = a b cos, where is the
angle between a and b.

The dot product of perpendicular vectors is zero.

The dot product of parallel vectors is simply the product of

their magnitudes.

A dot product is commutative: a b =ba

A dot product can be performed on two vectors of the
same dimension, no matter how big the dimension.
 First recall vector addition in component form:

x1, y1, z1 + x2, y2, z2 = x1 + x2, y1 + y2, z1 + z2

Its just component-wise addition.
Note that the sum of two vectors is a vector.

For a dot product we do component-wise multiplication and add up the results:

x1, y1, z1 x2, y2, z2 = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2

Note that the dot product of two vectors is a scalar!

Ex: -2, 3, 10 N 1, 6, -5 m = -2 + 18 - 50 = -34 N m

Dot products are used to find the work done by a force applied over a
distance, as well see in the future.
 Any vector can be written as the sum of its components.

The vector v = -3, 4 indicates 3 units left and 4 units up, which is the sum of its
components:
v= -3, 4 = -3, 0 + 0, 4
Lets factor out what we can from each vector in the sum:

v = -3, 4 = -3 1, 0 + 4 0, 1
The vectors on the right side are each of magnitude one. For this reason they are
called unit vectors.

A shorthand for the unit vector 1, 0 is i.

A shorthand for the unit vector 0, 1 is j.

Thus, v = -3, 4 = -3 i + 4 j
One way to interpret the vector v = 7, -5, 9 is that it
indicates 7 units east, 5 units south, and 9 units up. v can
be written as the sum components as follows:

v = 7, -5, 9 = 7, 0, 0 + 0, -5, 0 + 0, 0, 9
= 7 1, 0, 0 - 5 0, 1, 0 + 9 0, 0, 1

= 7i - 5j + 9k
In 3-D we define these unit vectors:
i = 1, 0, 0 , j = 0, 1, 0 , and k = 0, 0, 1

(continued on next slide)

 z
P

1
k
j y

1 The x-, y-, and z-axes are

1 mutually perpendicular, as are
x
i
i, j, and k. The yellow plane is
the x-y plane. i and j are in
this plane. Any point in space

can be reached from the origin using a linear combination of these 3 unit
vectors. Ex: P = (-1.8, -1.4, 1.2) so the vector

-1.8 i 1.4 j + 1.2 k will extend from the origin to P.

 3 2 To take a determinant of a 2 2 matrix, multiply
A = diagonals and subtract. The determinant of A is
4 11 written | A | and it equals 3 (11) - 4 (-2) = 33 + 8
= 41.
In order to do cross products we will need to find determinants of
3 3 matrices. One way to do this is to expand about the 1st row
using minors, which are smaller determinants within a
determinant. To find the minor of an element, cross out its row
and column and keep what remains.
Minor of a: Minor of b: Minor of c:
a b c
e f d f d e
d e f
h i g i g h
g h i

cont. on next slide

 By definition,

a b c
d e f = a (Minor of a) - b (Minor of b) + c (Minor of c)
g h i
e f d f d e
=a
h i
- b
g i
+ c
g h

= a (e i - h f ) - b (d i - g f ) + c (d h - g e)
Determinants can be expanded about any row or column. Besides
cross products, determinants have many other purposes, such as
solving systems of linear equations.
Cross Products
Let v1 = x1, y1, z1 and v2 = x2, y2, z2 .
By definition, the cross product of these vectors (pronounced v1 cross v2)
is given by the following determinant.

i j k
v1 v2 = x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2
= (y1 z2 - y2 z1) i - (x1 z2 - x2 z1) j + (x1 y2 - x2 y1) k
Note that the cross product of two vectors is another vector!
Cross products are used a lot in physics, e.g., torque is a vector defined
as the cross product of a displacement vector and a force vector. Well
learn about torque in another unit.
Right hand rule
A quick way to determine the direction of a cross product is
to use the right hand rule. To find a b, place the knife
edge of your right hand (pinky side) along a and curl your
hand toward b, making a fist. Your thumb then points in the
direction of
a b.
a b
It can be proven that the magnitude of

a b is given by:

|a b| = a b sin b
where is the angle between
a and b. a
1. The dot product of two vectors is a scalar; the cross product
is another vector (perpendicular to each of the original).
2. A dot product is commutative; a cross product is not. In fact,

a b = - b a.
3. Dot product
definition: x ,y ,z
1 1 1
x ,y ,z
2 2 2
= x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2

i j k
Cross product
definition: v1 v2 = x1 y1 z1

x2 y2 z2

4. |a b| =
a b = a b cos, and a b sin
Kinematics in One Dimension
MOTION
What is motion ?
What are the different types of motion?
What is the physics relating to motion called?
ok! we have answers to all these questions.
 1. what is motion?
when a body is
continuously changing
its position with respect
to the surroundings ,
then we say that the body
is in motion.
EXAMPLE :
1.When an athelete is running onthe
ground then he is continuously changing his
position with respect to the audience who
are sitting at rest.
2.We are continuously changing our
position since morning till night with respect
to earth which is at rest.
3.The earth is continuously changing
position with respect to sun which is at rest.
2.What are the different types of
motion?
Linear motion : when a body moves either in a
straight line or along a curved path, then we say that
it is executing linear motion.
1. when a body moves in a straight line then the
linear motion is called rectilinear motion.
eg ., an athelete running a 100 meter race along a
straight track is said to be a linear motion or
rectilinear motion.
2. when a body moves along a curved path then
the linear motion is called curvilinear motion.
eg., a planet revolving around its parent star
Other types of motion are :
Rotatory motion : A body is said to be in rotatory
motion when it stays at one place and turns round
and round about an axis.
example :a rotating fan, a spinning top, the earth.
Oscillatory motion : a body is said to be in
oscillatory motion when it swings to and fro about a
mean position.
example : the pendulum of a clock, the swing etc.,
What is the physics relating to motion
called ?
Mechanics : it is an important branch of physics
and deals with the effect of force on bodies.
It is further divided into two parts
1. Dynamics : In dynamics we discuss the
motion of bodies under the action of forces.
2.Kinematics : it deals with the study of
motion of bodies Without any reference to the
cause of motion.
Displacement
The displacement is a vector that points from an
objects initial position to its final position and has a
magnitude that equals the shortest distance between
the two positions.
SI Unit of Displacement: meter (m)
Speed and Velocity
Both have SI Unit of
Average Velocity:
meter per second
(m/s)

Speed is scalar
quantity.

Velocity is vector
quantity.
Acceleration

SI Unit of Average Acceleration: meter per second

squared (m/s2)
Equations of Kinematics for Constant
Acceleration
Equation 1:
v = vo + at
Equation 2:
x = vot + at2
Equation 2:
v2 = vo2 + 2ax

Where vo is the initial velocity, v is the final velocity, x is

the displacement, a is the acceleration, and t is the
time.
EXAMPLE
A jet is taking off from the deck of an aircraft carrier.
Starting from rest, the jet is catapulted with a constant
acceleration 31 m/s2 of along a straight line and reaches
a velocity of 62 m/s. Find the displacement of the jet.
EXAMPLE
A runner accelerates to a velocity of 4.15 m/s due west
in 1.50 s. His average acceleration is 0.640 m/s2, also
directed due west. What was his velocity when he
began accelerating?
EXAMPLE
A locomotive is accelerating at 1.6 m/s2. It passes
through a 20.0-m-wide crossing in a time of 2.4 s. After
the locomotive leaves the crossing, how much time is
required until its speed reaches 32 m/s?
Freely Falling Bodies
The acceleration of a freely falling body is called the
acceleration due to gravity, and its magnitude is
denoted by the symbol g.
The acceleration due to gravity is directed downward,
toward the center of the earth. Near the earths surface,
g is approximately
 Acceleration due to Gravity
Near the surface of the This acceleration
Earth, all objects vector is the
accelerate at the same same on the way
rate (ignoring air up, at the top,
resistance). and on the way
down!
a = - g = - 9.8 m/s2
9.8 m/s2

Interpretation: Velocity decreases by 9.8 m/s each second,

meaning velocity is becoming less positive or more
negative. Less positive means slowing down while going
up. More negative means speeding up while going down.
Equations of Free-falling Bodies
Equation 1:
v = vo + gt
Equation 2:
y = vot + gt2
Equation 2:
v2 = vo2 + 2gy

Note: Usually g is denoted as negative since its direction

is pointing downward.
Example - A Falling Stone
A stone is dropped
from rest from the
top of a tall
building. After 3.00
s of free-fall, what
is the displacement
y of the stone?
Example
A football game customarily
begins with a coin toss to
determine who kicks off. The
referee tosses the coin up
with an initial speed of 5.00
m/s. In the absence of air
resistance, how high does the
coin go above its point of
release?
Exercise Problems
1. Youre riding a unicorn at 25 m/s and come to a
uniform stop at a red light 20 m away. Whats
your acceleration?

2. A brick is dropped from 100 m up. Find its

impact velocity and air time.

3. An arrow is shot straight up from a pit 12 m

below ground at 38 m/s.
a. Find its max height above ground.
b. At what times is it at ground level?
Kinematics in two Dimensions
Projectile Motion
Examples
Motion through the air without a propulsion
What is projectile motion?
A motion where a body is given a velocity and then
allowed to fall under the influence of gravity.

x variables: x, vx, ax, vox, t

1. ax = 0 m/s2
2. vx = vox = constant

Y variables: y, vy, ay, voy, t

1. ay = g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2
2. vy is not constant
Types of projectile motion
Motion of Objects Projected
Horizontally
A rifle is held perfectly horizontally 1.5 m over level ground. At
the instant the trigger is pulled, a second bullet is dropped from
the tip of the barrel. The muzzle velocity of the gun is 80 m/s.
1. Which bullet hits the ground first? answer: They hit at same time.

2. How fast is each bullet moving after 0.3 s ? answer:

Use vf = v0 + a t and use vertical info only: v0 = 0, a = -9.8 m/s2, and t = 0.3
s. We get vy in the pic for each bullet is -2.94 m/s. Using the Pythagorean
theorem for the fired bullet we get 80.054 m/s in a direction tangent to its
path.
80 m/s continued on next slide
80 m/s

vy fired bullet vy dropped bullet

after 0.3 s after 0.3 s
3. How far away does the fired bullet land (its range)? answer:
The first step is to find the its hang time. This is the same hang time as the
dropped bullet. Use y = v0 t + 0.5 a t 2 with only vertical data: -1.5 = (0) t
+ (0.5) (-9.8) t 2. So, t = 0.5533 s.
The whole time the bullet is falling its also moving to the left at a constant
80 m/s. Since horizontally v is constant, we use x = v t with only
horizontal info: x = (80 m/s) (0.5533 s) = 44.26 m.
Note: When a = 0, x = v0 t + 0.5 a t 2 breaks down to x = v t.

80 m/s

1.5 m
 9.8 m/s2

Gravitys downward pull is

independent of horiz. motion.
So, the vertical acceleration of
each marble is -g (for the
9.8 m/s2 whole trip), and the sideways
acceleration of each is zero.
(Gravity cant pull sideways).
Whatever horiz. velocity the
black one had when shot is a
constant throughout its trip.
Only its vertical velocity
9.8 m/s2
changes. (A vertical force like
gravity can only produce
vertical acceleration.)
continued on next slide
Types of Projectile Motion
Motion of objects projected at
an angle
Final speed = initial speed (conservation of energy)
Impact angle = - launch angle (symmetry of parabola)
 Projectile Fired at an Angle
Now lets find range of a projectile fired with speed v0 at an angle . Step 1: Split the
initial velocity vector into components.
v0
v0 sin

v0 cos

continued on next slide

Step 2: Find hang time. Use y = v0t + a t 2 with only vertical
data:
y = (v0 sin ) t + (-g)t 2
Over level ground, y = 0. Divide through by t:
0 = v0 sin - 4.9 t, and t = (v0 sin ) / 4.9
Note: If we had shot the projectile from a 100 m
cliff, y would be -100 m.

v0
v0 sin

v0 cos continued on next slide
 Step 3: Now that we know how long its in the air, we know how long it
travels horizontally. (The projectiles vertical and horizontal movements
are completely independent.) Use x = v0t + a t 2 again, this time with
only horizontal data:

x = (v0 cos ) t + (0) t 2 = (v0 cos ) t

This is the same as saying:

v0 horiz. distance = horiz. speed time

v0 sin

In other words, d = vt

v0 cos continued on next slide
Example
A placekicker kicks a football at an angle of = 40o
above the horizontal axis. The initial speed of the ball
is vo = 22m/s. Ignore air resistance and find the
maximum height H that the ball attains.
Example
An Olympic long jumper leaves the ground at an angle
of 23 and travels through the air for a horizontal
distance of 8.7 m before landing. What is the takeoff
speed of the jumper?
Example
A hot-air balloon is rising straight up with a speed of
3.0 m/s. A ballast bag is released from rest relative to
the balloon when it is 9.5 m above the ground. How
much time elapses before the ballast bag hits the
ground?
 A stuntman drives a picklemobile off a 350 m cliff going
70 mph. The angle of elevation of the cliff is 21. Hes
hoping to make it across a 261 m wide river and land
0 mph on a ledge 82 m high. Does
7
he make it ?
Well, the first thing we have to do is convert the
21 initial velocity into m/s:

70 mi 1609 m h
= 31.2861 m/s
h mi 3600 s
350 m

continued on next slide

261 m
82 m
11.2119 m/s

We resolve the initial velocity into components.

1 m/s Then we find the picklemobiles hang time

86
31.2
21
(which is the same as if it had been shot
straight up at about 11.2 m/s), with y = 82 m
29.2081 m/s - 350 m = -268 m.
-268 = 11.2119 t - 4.9 t 2
4.9 t 2 - 11.2119 t - 268 = 0
t = -6.3394 s or 8.6276 s
(using quadratic formula or computer)
350 m

261 m continued
82 m on next
slide
continued on next slide
We want the positive answer for t. The interpretation of the negative
answer is that if the pickle car had been launched from the

height of the ledge, it would have taken about

29.2081 m/s
6.3 s to reach the edge of the cliff.

Anyway, for 8.62757 s the pickle mobile is in

the air and traveling to the right at about 29 m/s.
Therefore, its range is
(29.2081 m/s) (8.6276 s) 252 m < 261 m.
Alas, the poor picklemobile doesnt make it.

82 m

continued on next slide

11.2119 m/s

What max height does the pickle mobile attain?

It attains the same max height as if

it had been shot up at about 11.2
m/s. Since its vertical velocity is
zero at its highest pt., we have
parabolic
trajectory 02 - (11.2119)2 = 2(-9.8) y.
So, y = 6.41 m. Add 350 m and
the max height is 356.41 m.
350 m

continued on next slide

82 m
 What is the impact velocity of the pickle mobile (the
11.2119 m/s

velocity upon splash down)?

The horizontal component is the same at landing as it
was on lift off. We must find the final vertical velocity:
29.2081
m/s vf2 - (11.2119)2 = 2(-9.8) (-350).
29.2081 m/s
So, vf = -83.5805 m/s.

83.5805 m/s
The Pythagorean theorem gives us

88.
the magnitude of the resultant.

537
350 m = tan-1 (83.5805 / 88.5371) = 70.74.

1 m
Thus the impact velocity is about

/s
88.5 m/s at 71 below the horizontal.
From home plate to the center field wall at a ball park is 130 m. When a
batter hits a long drive the ball leaves his bat 1 m off the ground with a velocity
of 40 m/s at 28 above the horizontal. The center field wall is 2.6 m high.
Does he hit a homerun?

m /s
40 28 2.6 m
} 1m
130 m

Lets first check the range to see if it even has a chance:

R = v02 sin 2 / g = 402 sin 56 / 9.8 = 135.35 m. So, if it can clear the wall,
it will make it. We need to determine its vertical position when its horizontal
position is 130 m. If its 1.6 m or more, its a homer. Lets first find the time
when the ball is 130 m away (horizontally) from the point where it was
walloped.

continued on next slide

t = d / v = (130 m) / (40 cos 28) = 3.68085 s.
Lets see how high up it is at this time:
y = (40 sin 28) (3.68085) - 4.9 (3.68085)2 = 2.73 m,
which is 3.73 m above the ground, out of the reach of a
leaping outfielder. Therefore, its a homer!

In real life the batter wouldnt be so fortunate. His hit would only have gone a
fraction of the distance with air resistance. What is barely a homer in a vacuum is a
mere blooper in air. Homerun balls in the major league would go about 700 or 800 ft
in a vacuum! This means balls would routinely be hit out over the stadium into the
parking lot.
A trebuchet launches a 180 kg lead sphere at the wall of a medieval castle
120 m away. The projectile impacts the wall 23 m up. Its high point in the air
occurs 2/3 of the way to the wall. The trebuchet takes 0.6 s to launch the
sphere and releases it at a height of 5 m. Find the launch velocity of the
sphere and the average force the trebuchet exerts on it.
continued on next slide
lead sphere

tree trunk
rope axle

swinging
wheeled wooden frame counterweight
that rolls backwards
during launch
Trebuchet
 (80, h )
The high pt. occurs horizontally at a
distance of half of what its range would be
over level ground,
which is 2/3 of 120 m.
(120, 23
impact

v So, 80 = R / 2 = v 2 sin 2 / 2g
v 2 = 1568 / sin 2
v sin

continued on next slide

v cos
(0, 5)
Let t = time at impact. Horizontally: 120 = (v cos ) t.
Vertically: 18 = (v sin ) t - 4.9 t 2. Now substitute for
t 18 = (v sin ) [120 / (v cos ) ] - 4.9 [120 / (v cos ) ] 2

18 = 120 tan - 4.9 14400

v2 cos2
From the last slide, v 2 = 1568 / sin 2. Substitute for v 2
into the equation above:
14400
18 = 120 tan - 4.9
1568 cos2
sin 2
45 sin 2 15 sin 2
18 = 120 tan - 6 = 40 tan -
cos
2 cos2
continued on next slide
Now we have an equation with just one variable, but its not an easy one to
solve. We can solve for by graphing the equation below and looking for a
y-intercept (in radian mode).

15 sin 2
y = 40 tan - -6
cos
2

10
7.5 0.4
5
0.2
2.5

-2.5 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 0.525 0.53 0.535 0.54 0.545 0.55
-0.2
-5
-7.5 -0.4
-10 Domain: [ 0, / 2 ] Domain: [ 0.52, 0.55 ]
180
= 0.5404 radians = 30.9626
radians continued on next slide
Now lets substitute this value for into v 2 = 1568 / sin 2.
This gives us v = 42.1557 m/s. Using the fact that the
trebuchet pushes on the lead sphere for 0.6 s, we can find
the spheres acceleration, (since it starts from rest and we
now know vf for the launch phase).
vf = v0 + a t

aavg = (42.1557 - 0) / (0.6) = 70.2595 m/s2

So, Favg = m aavg = 180 (70.2595) = 12 646.71 N
Because the force (and therefore the acceleration) is not constant, what
weve calculated is the average force and acceleration.
 g
y x tan 2 x 2

2vi cos 2

35

30 15 deg
vi = 25 m/s
25 30 deg
45 deg
20
60 deg
15
75 deg
10

0
0 20 40 60 80
Over level ground at a constant launch speed, what angle maximizes the
range, R ? First consider some extremes: When = 0, R = 0, since the
object is on the ground from the moment its launched. When = 90, the
object goes straight up and lands right on the launch site, so R = 0 again. The
best angle is 45, smack dab between the extremes.

Here all launch speeds are the same;

only the angle varies.

76

45

38
 An object fired at angle will have the same
75 range as when its fired at the same speed at
an angle 90 - . Reason: R = 2v02 sin cos
/ g, and the sine of an angle is the cosine of
its complement (and vice versa). For
example, R at 40 is
2v02 sin 40 cos 40 / g
= 2v02 cos 50 sin 50 / g
15 = R at 50.

50

40
y

Motion is accelerated
Acceleration is constant, and
downward
a = g = -9.81m/s2
The horizontal (x) component
of velocity is constant
The horizontal and vertical
g = -9.81m/s2 motions are independent of
each other, but they have a
common time

x
PROJECTILE MOTION - SUMMARY
Projectile motion is motion with a constant horizontal
velocity combined with a constant vertical acceleration
The projectile moves along a parabola
Forces and Newton's Laws of
Motion
Examples of Forces
A force is just a push or pull. Examples:
w - an objects weight
T - tension in a rope
f friction force
N normal force
a left hook to the schnozola
attraction between an electron and proton

Bodies dont have to be in contact to exert forces

on each other, e.g., gravity.
Fundamental Forces of Nature
Gravity
Attraction between any two bodies w/ mass
Weakest but most dominant

Electromagnetic
Forces between any two bodies w/ charge
Attractive or repulsive

Weak nuclear force responsible for radioactive

decay
Strong nuclear force holds quarks together
(constituents of protons and neutrons)
Newtons Laws of Motion
1. Inertia: An object in motion tends
to stay in motion. An object at rest
tends to stay at rest.

2. Fnet = ma
3. Action Reaction: For every
action there is an equal but
opposite reaction.
Newtons First Law of Motion
An object continues in a state of rest or in a state of
motion at a constant speed along a straight line, unless
compelled to change that state by a net force.

Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain

at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a straight
line. The mass of an object is a quantitative measure of
inertia.
SI Unit of Inertia and Mass: kilogram (kg)
Newtons Second Law of Motion
When a net external force F acts on an object of
mass m, the acceleration a that results is directly
proportional to the net force and has a magnitude that
is inversely proportional to the mass. The direction of
the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net
force.

SI Unit of Force: kgm/s2 = newton (N)

Units for Mass, Acceleration, and
Force
 Example
Two people are pushing a stalled car. The mass of the car is
1850 kg. One person applies a force of 275 N to the car, while
the other applies a force of 395 N. Both forces act in the same
direction. A third force of 560 N also acts on the car, but in a
direction opposite to that in which the people are pushing.
This force arises because of friction and the extent to which
the pavement opposes the motion of the tires. Find the
acceleration of the car.
Newtons Third Law of Motion
Whenever one body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an oppositely directed force of
equal magnitude on the first body.

The third law is often called the actionreaction law,

because it is sometimes quoted as follows: For every
action (force) there is an equal, but opposite, reaction.
 Example
Suppose that the mass
of the spacecraft is
mS = 11 000 kg and that
the mass of the
astronaut is mA = 92 kg.
In addition, assume
that the astronaut
exerts a force of on the
spacecraft. Find the
accelerations of the
spacecraft and the
astronaut.
Newtons Law of Universal
Gravitation
Every particle in the universe exerts an attractive force on
every other particle. A particle is a piece of matter, small
enough in size to be regarded as a mathematical point. For
two particles that have masses m1 and m2 and are separated
by a distance r, the force that each exerts on the other is
directed along the line joining the particles and has a
magnitude given by

G = universal gravitational constant

Example

What is the magnitude of the gravitational force

that acts on each particle in Figure 4-10, assuming
m1 = 12 kg (approximately the mass of a bicycle),
m2 = 25 kg, and r = 1.2 m?
Definition of Weight

The weight of an object on or above the earth is

the gravitational force that the earth exerts on the
object. The weight always acts downward, toward
the center of the earth. On or above another
astronomical body, the weight is the gravitational
force exerted on the object by that body.

SI Unit of Weight: newton (N)

Definition of Weight
Using W for the magnitude of the weight,* m for
the mass of the object, and ME for the mass of the
earth,

Where ME = mass of the earth, r = radius of the earth, G

= universal gravitational constant, and m = mass of an
object above the earth
NOTE: W = mg
and g = GME/r2
The Tension Force
Forces which are often applied by means of cables or
ropes that are used to pull an object.
 38 N T1 T2
8 kg 5 kg 6 kg

frictionless floor

A force is applied to a box that is connected

to other boxes by ropes. The whole system
is accelerating to the left.
The problem is to find the tensions in the
ropes.
We can apply the 2nd Law to each box
individually as well as to the whole system.
 38 N T1 T2
8 kg 5 kg 6 kg

frictionless floor

T1 pulls on the 8-kg box to the right just as

hard as it pulls on the middle box to the left.
T1 must be < 38 N, or the 8-kg box couldnt
accelerate.
T2 pulls on the middle box to the right just as
hard as it pulls on the 6-kg box to the left.
T1 must be > T2 or the middle box couldnt
accelerate.
 For convenience, well choose
N left to be the positive direction.

The total mass of all three

boxes is 19 kg.
38 N N and mg cancel out.
19 kg
Fnet = m a implies
a = 2.0 m/s2
Since the ropes dont
mg stretch, a will be 2.0 m/s2
for all three boxes.
N and mg cancel out.
N
For this particular box,
Fnet = m a implies: T2 6 kg

T2 = 6a = 6(2) = 12 N.
(Remember, a = 2 m/s2 for all mg
three boxes.)

38 N T1 T2
8 kg 5 kg 6 kg
frictionless floor
N and mg cancel N
out again.
T1 T2 = 12 N
5 kg
Fnet = m a implies:

T1 T2 = 5a. So, mg
T1 12 = 5(2), and
T1 = 22 N

38 N T1 T2
8 kg 5 kg 6 kg
frictionless floor
 Lets check our work
N
using the left box.
38 N T1 = 22 N N and mg cancel out
8 kg
here too.
Fnet = ma implies:
mg
38 - 22 = ma = 8(2).
16 = 16.

38 N T1 T2
8 kg 5 kg 6 kg
 Assume m1 < m2 and that the
clockwise direction is +.
If the rope & pulley have
T negligible mass, and if the
pulley is frictionless, then T is
m1
T the same throughout the
rope.
m1g m2 If the rope doesnt stretch, a
is the same for both masses.
m2g
 Remember, clockwise has been defined as +.

2nd Law on m1: T - m1g = m1a

2nd Law on m2: m2g - T = m2 a

T Add equations:
T m2g m1g = m1a + m2 a
m1
(The T s cancel out.)
Solve for a:
m1g m2
a = m2 m1 g
m2g m1 + m2
 Treated as a system (rope & both
masses), tension is internal and
the T s cancel out (one clock-wise,
one counterclockwise).

T Fnet = (total mass) a implies

(force in + direction) -
m1
T (force in - direction)
= m2g - m1g = (m1 + m2) a.
m1g m2 Solving for a gives the same
result. Then, knowing a, T can
m2g be found by substitution.
 Friction
Friction is the force bodies can impart on each
other when theyre in contact.
The friction forces are parallel to the contact
surface and occur when
One body slides over the other, or
They cling together despite and external force.
The forces shown are an action-reaction pair.
(force on box
due to table)
f v
Acme Hand
Grenades

f (force on table due to box)

 Friction Facts
Friction is due to electrostatic attraction between
the atoms of the objects in contact.
It can speed you up, slow you down, or make you
turn.
It allows you to walk, turn a corner on your bike,
warm your hands in the winter, and see a meteor
shower.
Friction often creates waste heat.
It makes you push harder / longer to attain a given
acceleration.
Like any force, it always has an action-reaction
pair.
Two Kinds of Friction
Static friction fs FA
Must be overcome in order to
budge an object Objects are still or
Present only when there is no moving together.
relative motion between the Fnet = 0.
bodies, e.g., the box & table top
Kinetic friction
Weaker than static friction
Present only when objects are
moving with respect to each fk FA
other (skidding)
Fnet is to the right.
a is to the right.
v is left or right.
Friction Strength
The magnitude of the friction force is proportional
to:
how hard the two bodies are pressed together (the
normal force, N ).

the materials from which the bodies are made (the

coefficient of friction, ).

Attributes that have little or no effect:

sliding speed
contact area
Frictional Forces (Friction)
When the object moves or attempts to move along the
surface, a component of the force that is parallel to the
surface is called the frictional force, or simply
friction.
Coefficients of Friction
Static coefficient s.

Kinetic coefficient k.

Both depend on the materials in contact.

Small for steel on ice or scrambled egg on Teflon frying
pan
Large for rubber on concrete or cardboard box on
carpeting
The bigger the coefficient of friction, the bigger the
frictional force.
Static Friction Force
fs s N
normal
static
coefficient of force
frictional
force static friction

fs, max = s N
maximum
force of static
fs, max is the force you
friction must exceed in order to
budge a resting object.
Normal Force
The normal force FN is one component of the force
that a surface exerts on an object with which it is in
contactnamely, the component that is
perpendicular to the surface.
Cases in which N mg
1. Mass on incline
2. Applied force acting on the mass
3. Nonzero acceleration, as in an elevator or
launching space shuttle

N FA N
N a

mg
mg mg
 Static friction force varies
fs, max is a constant in a given problem, but fs
varies.
fs matches FA until FA exceeds fs, max.
Example: In the picture below, if s for a
wooden crate on a tile floor is 0.6,
fs, max = 0.6 (10 ) (9.8) = 58.8 N.
fs = 27 N FA = 27 N
10 kg
fs = 43 N FA = 43 N
10 kg

fk FA = 66 N The box finally budges when FA

10 kg
surpasses fs, max. Then kinetic
acts on the box.
Kinetic Friction
fk = k N
normal
kinetic
coefficient of force
frictional
force kinetic friction

Once object budges, forget about s.

Use k instead.
fk is a constant so long as the materials involved
dont change.
There is no maximum fk.
 values
Typically, 0 < k < s < 1.
This is why its harder to budge an object than to
keep it moving.

If k > 1, it would be easier to lift an object and

carry it than to slide across the floor.
Dimensionless (s have no units, as is apparent
from f = N).
 Friction Example 1
You push a giant barrel o monkeys setting
on a table with a constant force of 63 N. If
k = 0.35 and s =0.58, when will the barrel
have moved 15 m?

Never, since this force wont even budge it!

answer:
63 < 0.58 (14.7) (9.8) 83.6 N

Barrel o
Monkeys 14.7 kg
 Friction Example 2
Same as the last problem except with a bigger FA: You push
the barrel o monkeys with a constant force of 281 N.
k = 0.35 and s =0.58, same as before. When will the barrel
have moved 15 m?

step 1: fs, max = 0.58 (14.7) (9.8) 83.6 N

step 2: FA= 281N > fs max. Thus, it budges this time.
,

step 3: Forget fs and calculate fk:

fk = 0.35 (14.7) (9.8) = 50.421 N
Barrel o
Monkeys 14.7 kg (continued on next slide)
 step 4: Free body diagram while sliding:
Friction Example 2 (continued)

N
fk FA

mg
step 5: Fnet = FA fk = 281 - 50.421 = 230.579 N
Note: To avoid compounding of error, do not round until the
end of the problem.
step 6: a = Fnet / m = 230.579 / 14.7 = 15.68564 m/s2

step 7: Kinematics: x = +15 m, v0 = 0,

a = +15.68564 m/s2, t = ?
x = v0 t + a t 2 t = 2 x / a 1.38 s
answer:
Note: T1 must be > T2 otherwise m2 couldnt accelerate.

T 2 - m 3 g = m3 a T 1 - T 2 - k m 2 g = m 2 a m1 g - T 1 = m 1 a

system: m1 g - km2 g - m3 g = (m
v1
+ m 2 + m 3) a
m1 > m3

m2
T2 T1

m3
k m1
T2 T1

m3 g fk
m2 g m1 g
 answer:

m
v m

Rock falling down in a pool of water mg

mg - D = ma. So, a = (mg - D) / m. Note: the longer the rock falls, the faster it
goes and the greater D becomes, which is proportional to v. Eventually, D = mg
and a becomes zero,
as our equation shows, and the rock reaches terminal velocity.
 answer:
A large crate of cotton candy and a small
iron block of the same mass are falling in
air at the same speed, accelerating down. Since the masses are the same, a =
(mg - R) / m for each one, but R is
bigger for the cotton candy since it has
more surface area and they are
R moving at the same speed (just for
now). So the iron has a greater
R
accelera-tion and will be moving faster
than the candy hereafter. The cotton
cotton
Fe candy will reach terminal vel. sooner
candy
and its terminal vel. will be less than
the irons.

mg mg
The boxes are answer: There is no friction acting on m2.
not sliding; It would not be in equilibrium otherwise.
coefficients of T = m3 g = f1 1 N1 = 1(m1 + m2) g
static friction are f1s reaction pair acting on table is not shown.
given.
2 2 is extraneous
m2
N1 info in this
problem, but not
1 m1 in the next slide.

T T
m1
f1
N2 m3
m3
m2 g
m1 g m2
m2 g m3 g

Boxes accelerating
(clockwise); m1 & m2
are sliding;
coefs of kinetic friction
given.
answer: There is friction acting on m2 now.
It would not be accelerating otherwise.
m3 g - T = m3 a; f2 = m2 a; T - f1 - f2 = m1 a,
where f1 = 1 N1 = 1(m1 + m2) g
and f2 = 2 N2 = 2 m2 g.

2
m2 Note: f2 appears
N1 v twice; theyre reaction
pairs.
1 m1
f2
T T
m1
f1 N2
m3
m2 g m2 f2
m1 g
m3 g
m2 g
 answer: Constant velocity is the same as no
Boxes moving clockwise velocity when it comes to the 2nd Law.
at constant speed.
Since a = 0, m2 g = T = m1 g sin + fk = m1 g sin + k m1 g cos
m2 = m1 (sin + k cos ). This is the relationship
between the masses that must exist for equilibrium.
N T Note: sin, cos, and
k are all
dimensionless
m v
g quantities, so we have
1
co T
fk s kg as units on both
sides of the last

1
m

m2 equation.

sin
g1
m

m1 g k m2 g

Mr. Stickman is out for a walk. Hes moseying along but picking up
speed with each step. The coef. of static friction between the grass
and his stick sneakers is s. answer:
Heres a case where friction is a good thing. Without it we couldnt walk. (Its
difficult to walk on ice since s is so small.) We use fs here since we assume hes
not slipping. Note: friction is in the direction of motion in this case. His pushing
force does not appear in the free body diag. since it acts on the ground, not him.
The reaction to his push is friction.

Fnet = fs
N
So, ma = fs fs, max = s m g
v
Thus, a s g.
fs

mg
 answer:
Note: is measured with respect to the
vertical here.
F
F cos

Box does not get lifted up off the ground

as long as
F cos mg. If F cos mg, then N = 0.
N
F sin Box budges if F sin > fs, max
= s N = s (mg - F cos ).
fk v
m While sliding,
F sin - k (mg - F cos ) = ma.
ground k

mg
Friction as the net force
A runner is trying to steal second base. Hes
running at a speed v; his mass is m. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between his uniform
and the base pass is . How far from second base
should he begin his slide in order to come to a stop
right at the base?
Note: In problems like these where no numbers are
given, you are expected to answer the questions in
terms of the given parameters and any constants.
Here, the given parameters are m, , and v.
Constants may include g, , and regular numbers
like 27 and 1.86. (continued on next slide)
 N Once the slide begins, there is no
applied force. Since N and mg cancel
fk
out, fk is the net force. So Newtons 2nd
Law tells us:
mg
fk = ma. But the friction force is also
given by fk = N = m g.
Therefore, m g = m a. Mass cancels out, meaning
the distance of his slide is completely independent of
how big he is, and we have a = g. (Note that the
units work out since is dimensionless.) This is just
the magnitude of a. If the forward direction is
positive, his acceleration (which is always in the
direction of the net force) must be negative.
So, a = - g. (continued on next slide)
Equilibrium
An object is in equilibrium when it has zero
acceleration.
In other words, the forces acting on an object in
equilibrium must balance. Thus, in two dimensions,
the equilibrium condition is expressed by two
equations:
Example
An automobile engine has
a weight W, whose
magnitude is W = 3150 N.
This engine is being
positioned above an engine
compartment. To position
the engine, a worker is
using a rope. Find the
tension T1 in the
supporting cable and the
tension T2 in the
positioning rope.
Hanging sign sample
Support Beam

T1 T2
Answers:
35 62
T1 = 347.65 N
75 kg T2 = 606.60 N

Accurately draw all vectors and find T1 & T2.

Bugs Bunny, Yosemite Sam, and
the Tweety Bird are fighting over Sam: Tweety:
a giant 111 N 64 N
450 g Acme super ball. If their
forces remain constant, how far,
and in what direction, will the ball 38 43
move in 3 s, assuming the super
ball is initially at rest ?

To answer this question, we must find a, so we can

do kinematics. But in order to find a, we must first Bugs:
find Fnet. 95 N

continued on next slide

Dynamics of Uniform Circular
Motion
 vf = v Lets find a formula for centripetal
acceleration by considering uniform
circular motion. By the definition of
r v0 = v acceleration, a = (vf - v0) / t. We are
subtracting vectors here, not speeds,
otherwise a would be zero. (v0 and vf
r
have the same magnitudes.) The smaller
t is, the smaller will be, and the more
the blue sector will approximate a
triangle. The blue triangle has sides r,
r, and v t
vf - v0 vt (from d = v t ). The vector triangle has
sides v, v, and | vf - v0 |. The two
v0 triangles are similar (side-angle-side
r similarity).
vf r
continued on next slide
 vf = v
By similar triangles,

v | vf - v0 |
r v0 = v =
r vt
r So, multiplying both sides above by v,
we have

| vf - v0 | v2
ac = =
t r
- v | vt
| vf 0

(m/s)2 m2 / s 2

v r Unit check: =
m
v r
m

m
=
s2
 v v
ac ac
at
at
moving counterclockwise; moving counterclockwise;
speeding up slowing down

Centripetal means center-seeking. The magnitude of ac

depends on both v and r. However, regardless of speed
or tangential acceleration, ac always points toward the
center. That is, ac is always radial (along the radius).
 The overall acceleration is the vector
sum of the centripetal acceleration and
the tangential acceleration. That is,

a a = ac + at
This is true regardless of the direction of
motion. It holds true even when an
ac at
object is not moving in a perfect circle.
Note: The equation above does not
include v. Vectors of different quantities
cannot be added!
moving counterclockwise while
speeding up or moving clockwise
while slowing down
Centripetal Acceleration
Example
An automobile, starting
from rest, has a linear
acceleration to the right
whose magnitude is 0.800
m/s2. During the next 20.0 s,
the tires roll without
slipping. The radius of each
wheel is 0.330 m. At the end
of this time, what is the
angle through which each
wheel has rotated?
Here we have an object moving along the brown path at a constant speed (at = 0). ac
changes, though, since the radius of curvature changes. At P1 the path is
approximated by the large green circle, at P2 by the smaller orange one. The smaller
r is, the bigger ac is.

v2
ac =
r
R2
v
R1
P2
ac
ac

ac
P1 v
 Youre cruising at a constant 20 m/s on a
winding highway. The radius of curvature
where you are is 60 m. Your centripetal
0 m acceleration is:
6
ac = (20 m/s)2 / (60 m) = 6.67 m/s2

The force that causes this acceleration is

ac 20 m/s
friction, which is why its hard to turn on ice.
Friction, in this case, is the centripetal force.
The sharper the turn or the greater your speed,
overhead view the greater the frictional force must be.

continued on next
 Since youre not speeding up, f is the net force, so
Fnet = f = s N = s mg = ma. We use s because
youre not sliding (or even moving) radially. Thus,
r
s mg = ma.
Mass cancels out, showing that your centripetal
f
acceleration doesnt depend on how heavy your
vehicle is. Solving for a we have
ac v
m a = g.
s

overhead view In the diagram N is pointing out of the slide. Also, a

= ac in this case since
at = 0.
 From F = ma, we get Fc = mac = mv2 / r.

Fc = mv 2

If a body is turning, look at all forces acting on it, and find

the net force. The component of the net force that acts
toward the center of curvature (perpendicular to the
bodys motion) is the centripetal force. The component
that acts parallel to its motion (forward or backwards) is
the tangential component of the net force.
Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion is the motion of an object
traveling at a constant (uniform) speed on a circular
path.

Speed v of any circular motion is the distance traveled

(Circumference = 2r) divided by the time T:
Example
The wheel of a car has a radius of r = 0.29 m and is
being rotated at 830 revolutions per minute (rpm) on a
tire-balancing machine. Determine the speed (in m/s)
at which the outer edge of the wheel is moving.
Centripetal Acceleration
Magnitude: The centripetal acceleration of an object
moving with a speed v on a circular path of radius r has
a magnitude ac given by

Direction: The centripetal acceleration vector always

points toward the center of the circle and continually
changes direction as the object moves.
Example
The bobsled track at the
1994 Olympics in
Lillehammer, Norway,
contained turns with radii
of 33 m and 24 m. Find the
centripetal acceleration at
each turn for a speed of 34
m/s, a speed that was
achieved in the two-man
event. Express the answers
as multiples of g.
Centripetal Force
Magnitude: The centripetal force is the name given to
the net force required to keep an object of mass m,
moving at a speed v, on a circular path of radius r, and
it has a magnitude of

Direction: The centripetal force always points toward

the center of the circle and continually changes
direction as the object moves.
Example
The model airplane has a mass of 0.90 kg and moves
at a constant speed on a circle that is parallel to the
ground. The path of the airplane and its guideline lie
in the same horizontal plane, because the weight of
the plane is balanced by the lift generated by its wings.
Find the tension T in the guideline (length = 17 m) for
speeds of 19 and 38 m/s.
Banked Curves

Based on the FBD: FNsin = mv2/r

and : FNcos = mg. Dividing this
equation into the previous one shows
that
Example
The Daytona 500 is the major event of the NASCAR
(National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) season. It
is held at the Daytona International Speedway in Daytona,
Florida. The turns in this oval track have a maximum radius
(at the top) of r = 316 m and are banked steeply, with =
31o. Suppose these maximum-radius turns were frictionless.
At what speed would the cars have to travel around them?
Satellites in Circular Orbits
The speed v of the satellite
gives

For a satellite in circular

orbit around the earth, the
gravitational force provides
the centripetal force.
Example
Determine the speed of the Hubble Space Telescope
orbiting at a height of 598 km above the earths
surface.
WORK
The work done on an object by a constant force F is

where F is the magnitude of the force, s is the magnitude of

the displacement, and is the angle between the force and the
displacement.
Example
Find the work done by a 45.0-N force in pulling the
suitcase in Figure 6-2a at an angle = 50o for a distance
s = 75 m.
The WorkEnergy Theorem and
Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy KE of an object with mass m and
speed v is given by

When a net external force does work W on an object,

the kinetic energy of the object changes from its initial
value of KE0 to a final value of KEf, the difference
between the two values being equal to the work:
Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy PE is the energy
that an object of mass m has by virtue of its position
relative to the surface of the earth. That position is
measured by the height h of the object relative to an
arbitrary zero level:

SI Unit of Gravitational Potential Energy: joule (J)

Conservative Force
Version 1 A force is conservative when the work it does
on a moving object is independent of the path
between the objects initial and final positions.

Version 2 A force is conservative when it does no net

work on an object moving around a closed path,
starting and finishing at the same point.
The Conservation of Mechanical
Energy
The total mechanical
energy (E = KE + PE) of
an object remains
constant as the object
moves, provided that the
net work done by
external
nonconservative forces is
zero, Wnc = 0 J.
Example
A motorcyclist is trying to leap across the canyon by
driving horizontally off the cliff at a speed of 38.0 m /s.
Ignoring air resistance, find the speed with which the
cycle strikes the ground on the other side.

The mass m of the rider and cycle can be eliminated algebraically from
this equation, since m appears as a factor in every term.
Power
Average power P is the average rate at which work W is
done, and it is obtained by dividing W by the time t
required to perform the work:

SI Unit of Power: joule /s = Watt (W)

The Principle of Conservation of
Energy
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can
only be converted from one form to another.

It means whenever energy is transformed from one

form to another, it is found that no energy is gained or
lost in the process; the total of all the energies before
the process is equal to the total of the energies after the
process.
Impulse and Momentum
Impulse
The impulse J of a force is the product of the average
force F and the time interval t during which the force
acts:

SI Unit of Impulse: newton second (Ns)

Impulse is a vector quantity and has the same
direction as the average force.
Momentum
The linear momentum p of an object is the product of
the objects mass m and velocity :

SI Unit of Linear Momentum: kilogram

meter/second (kgm/s)
Linear momentum is a vector quantity that points in
the same direction as the velocity.
ImpulseMomentum Theorem
When a net force acts on an object, the impulse of this
force is equal to the change in momentum of the
object:
 An elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy of
colliding bodies is the same before and after, i.e., none of the
original kinetic energy is converted to wasted heat.
An inelastic collision is one in which at least some of the kinetic
energy the bodies have before colliding is converted to waste
heat.
A purely inelastic collision occurs when two bodies stick
together after colliding.
In real life almost all collisions are inelastic, but sometimes they
can be approximated as elastic for problem solving purposes.
The collision of air molecules is truly elastic. (It doesnt really
make sense to say waste heat is generated since the motion of
molecules is thermal energy.)
Since no waste heat is created in an elastic collision, we can write equations to
conserve both momentum and energy. (In a closed system--meaning no external
forces--momentum is conserved whether or not the collision is elastic.)

before: after:
v1 v2 vA vB
m1 m2 m1 m2

conservation of momentum:

m1 v1 - m2 v2 = - m1 vA + m2vB
conservation of energy:

m1 v12 + m2 v22 = m1 vA2 + m2vB2

(Energy is a scalar, so there is no direction associated with it.)
A 95 g rubber biscuit collides head on with an 18 g superball in an elastic collision.
The initial speeds are given. Find the final speeds.

before: after:
6 m/s 8 m/s vA vB

18 g
95 g
conservation of momentum:

(95 g) (6 m/s) - (18 g) (8 m/s) = - (95 g) vA + (18 g)

vB No conversion to kg needed; grams
426 = - 95 vA + 18 cancel out.

vB conservation of energy:

(95 g) (6 m/s) + (18 g) (8 m/s) =

2 2
(95 g) vA2 + (18 g) vB2

continued on
cancel halves: 4572 = 95 vA2 + 18 vB2 next slide
Both final speeds are unknown, but we have two equations, one from conserving
momentum, and one from conserving energy:

momentum: 426 = - 95 vA + 18 vB

energy: 4572 = 95 vA2 + 18 vB2

If we solve the momentum equation for vB and substitute that into the energy
equation, we get:

4572 = 95 vA2 + 18 [(426 + 95 vA) / 18] 2

Expanding, simplifying, and solving the quadratic gives us
vA = -6 m/s or -1.54 m/s. Substituting each of these values into the momentum
equation gives us the corresponding vBs (in m/s):

{ vA = -6, vB = -8 } or { vA = -1.54, vB = 15.54 }

continued on next slide
 before: after:
6 m/s 8 m/s vA vB

18 g
95 g

The interpretation of the negative signs in our answers is that we assumed the
wrong direction in our after picture. Our first result tells us that m1 is moving to
the right at 6 m/s and m2 is moving at 8 m/s to the left. This means that the
masses missed each other instead of colliding. (Note that when the miss each
other both momentum and energy are conserved, and this result gives us
confidence that our algebra is correct.) The second solution is the one we want.
After the collision m1 is still moving to the right at 1.54 m/s, and m2 rebounds to
the right at 15.54 m/s.

{ vA = -6, vB = -8 } or { vA = -1.54, vB = 15.54 }

miss
Example
During a storm, rain comes straight down with a velocity of
vo = - 15 m/s and hits the roof of a car perpendicularly. The
mass of rain per second that strikes the car roof is
0.060 kg/s. Assuming that the rain comes to rest upon
striking the car (vf = 0 m/s), find the average force exerted
by the rain on the roof.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
The total linear momentum of an isolated system
remains constant (is conserved). An isolated system is
one for which the vector sum of the average external
forces acting on the system is zero.

Total final momentum = total initial momentum

Collisions in One Dimension
Collisions are often classified according to whether the
total kinetic energy changes during the collision:
Elastic collisionOne in which the total kinetic
energy of the system after the collision is equal to the
total kinetic energy before the collision.
Inelastic collisionOne in which the total kinetic
energy of the system is not the same before and after the
collision; if the objects stick together after colliding, the
collision is said to be completely inelastic.
Example
There is an elastic head-on collision
between two balls. One ball has a
mass of m1 = 0.250 kg and an initial
velocity of +5.00 m/s. The other has a
mass of m2 = 0.8 kg and is initially at
rest. No external forces act on the
balls. What are the velocities of the
balls after the collision?
Example
A ballistic pendulum can be used to measure the speed
of a projectile, such as a bullet. The ballistic pendulum
consists of a stationary 2.50-kg block of wood suspended
by a wire of negligible mass. A 0.0100-kg bullet is fired
into the block, and the block (with the bullet in it)
swings to a maximum height of 0.650 m above the initial
position (see part b of the drawing). Find the speed with
which the bullet is fired, assuming that air resistance is
negligible.
ANS. 896 m/s
Schmedrick decides to take up archery. He coerces his little brother
Poindexter to stand 20 stand paces away with a kumquat on his
head while Schmed takes aim at the fruit. The mass of the arrow is
0.7 kg, and when the bow is fully stretched, it is storing 285 J of
elastic potential energy. (Things that can be stretched or
compressed, like springs, can store this type of energy.) The
kumquats mass is 0.3 kg. By the time the arrow hits the kumquat,
friction and air resistance turn 4% of the energy it originally had into
waste heat. Surprisingly, Schmedrick makes the shot and the arrow
goes completely through the kumquat, exiting at 21 m/s. How fast is
the kumquat moving now?

continued on next slide

First lets figure out how fast the arrow is moving when it hits the fruit.
96% of its potential energy is turned to kinetic:

0.96 (285) = (0.7) v 2 v = 27.9592 m/s

0.7 kg
0.3 kg
27.9592 m/s v=0 vK 21 m/s
before after

Now we conserve momentum, but not kinetic energy, since this is not an elastic
collision. This means that if we did not know the final speed of the arrow, we would
not have enough information.

0.7 (27.9592) = 0.3 vK + 0.7 (21) vK = 16.2381

m/s
continued on next slide
 How much more of the arrows original energy was lost while plowing its way
through the kumquat?

0.7 kg
0.3 kg
27.9592 m/s v=0 16.2381 21 m/s
before m/s
after

Before impact the total kinetic energy of the system is

K0 = (0.7) (27.9592)2 = 273.6 J

After impact the total kinetic energy of the system is

Kf = (0.7) (21)2 + (0.3) (16.2381)2 = 193.9 J

Therefore, 79.7 J of energy were converted into thermal energy. This shows that
the collision was indeed inelastic.
Example - A Collision in Two
Dimensions
Use momentum conservation to determine the
magnitude and direction of the final velocity of ball 1
after the collision. ANS. 0.64 m/s, 11o
Rotational Kinematics
Angular Displacement
When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the angular
displacement is the angle swept out by a line passing
through any point on the body and intersecting the axis of
rotation perpendicularly. By convention, the angular
displacement is positive if it is counterclockwise and negative
if it is clockwise.

SI Unit of Angular Displacement: radian (rad)*

Where
Average Angular Velocity
SI Unit of Angular Velocity: radian per second
(rad/s)
Average Angular Acceleration
SI Unit of Average Angular Acceleration: radian per
second squared (rad/s2)
The Equations of Rotational
Kinematics
Example
The blades of an electric blender are
whirling with an angular velocity of
+375 rad/s while the puree button is
pushed in. When the blend button
is pressed, the blades accelerate and
reach a greater angular velocity after
the blades have rotated through an
angular displacement of +44.0 rad.
The angular acceleration has a
constant value of +1740 rad/s2. Find
the final angular velocity of the
blades.
Tangential Speed and Acceleration
Tangential Speed

Tangential Acceleration
FLUIDS
DEFINITION OF MASS DENSITY

The mass density of a substance is the mass of a

substance divided by its volume:

m

V

SI Unit of Mass Density: kg/m3

 F
P
A

SI Unit of Pressure: 1 N/m2 = 1Pa

Pascal
Example 2 The Force on a Swimmer

Suppose the pressure acting on the back

of a swimmers hand is 1.2x105 Pa. The
surface area of the back of the hand is
8.4x10-3m2.

(a) Determine the magnitude of the force

that acts on it.
(b) Discuss the direction of the force.
 F
P
A
F PA 1.2 105 N m 2 8.4 10 3 m 2
1.0 103 N

Since the water pushes perpendicularly

against the back of the hand, the force
is directed downward in the drawing.
F
y P2 A P1 A mg 0

P2 A P1 A mg

V Ah

m V

P2 A P1 A Vg

P2 A P1 A Ahg

P2 P1 hg
Example 4 The Swimming Hole

Points A and B are located a distance of 5.50 m beneath the surface

of the water. Find the pressure at each of these two locations.
 P2 P1 gh

atmospheri
c pressure

P2 1.01105 Pa 1.00 103 kg m 3 9.80 m s 2 5.50 m
1.55 105 Pa
 P2 P1 gh

Patm gh

h
Patm


1.01 105 Pa

g 13.6 103 kg m 3 9.80 m s 2
0.760 m 760 mm
 P2 PB PA

PA P1 gh

absolute pressure

P P gh
2 atm
gauge pressure
PASCALS PRINCIPLE

Any change in the pressure applied

to a completely enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid and
enclosing walls.
Example 7 A Car Lift

The input piston has a radius of 0.0120 m

and the output plunger has a radius of
0.150 m.

The combined weight of the car and the

plunger is 20500 N. Suppose that the input
piston has a negligible weight and the bottom
surfaces of the piston and plunger are at
the same level. What is the required input
force?
 A2
F2 F1
A1

0.0120 m
2
F2 20500 N 131 N
0.150 m
2
ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

Any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially

or completely immersed in it; the magnitude of the buoyant
force equals the weight of the fluid that the object displaces:

FB Wfluid

Magnitude of Weight of
buoyant force displaced fluid
 P2 P1 gh

FB P2 A P1 A P2 P1 A

V hA

FB ghA

FB V g
mass of
displaced
fluid
If the object is floating then the
magnitude of the buoyant force
is equal to the magnitude of its
weight.
Example 9 A Swimming Raft

The raft is made of solid square

pinewood. Determine whether
the raft floats in water and if
so, how much of the raft is beneath
the surface.
 Vraft 4.0 m 4.0 m 0.30 m 4.8 m

FBmax Vg waterVwater g

1000 kg m 3 4.8m 3 9.80 m s 2
47000 N
Wraft mraft g pineVraft g

550 kg m 3 4.8m 3 9.80 m s 2
26000 N 47000 N

The raft floats!

 If the raft is floating:

Wraft FB

26000 N waterVwater g

26000 N 1000 kg m 3 4.0 m 4.0 m h 9.80 m s 2

26000 N
h 0.17 m

1000 kg m 4.0 m 4.0 m 9.80 m s
3 2

In steady flow the velocity of the fluid particles at any point is constant
as time passes.

Unsteady flow exists whenever the velocity of the fluid particles at a

point changes as time passes.

Turbulent flow is an extreme kind of unsteady flow in which the velocity

of the fluid particles at a point change erratically in both magnitude and
direction.
Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible. Most liquids are
nearly incompressible.

Fluid flow can be viscous or nonviscous.

An incompressible, nonviscous fluid is called an ideal fluid.

When the flow is steady, streamlines are often used to represent
the trajectories of the fluid particles.
The mass of fluid per second that flows through a tube is called
the mass flow rate.
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The mass flow rate has the same value at every position along a
tube that has a single entry and a single exit for fluid flow.

1 A1v1 2 A2 v2

SI Unit of Mass Flow Rate: kg/s

Incompressible fluid: A1v1 A2 v2

Volume flow rate Q: Q Av

Example 12 A Garden Hose

A garden hose has an unobstructed opening

with a cross sectional area of 2.85x10-4m2.
It fills a bucket with a volume of 8.00x10-3m3
in 30 seconds.

Find the speed of the water that leaves the hose

through (a) the unobstructed opening and (b) an obstructed
opening with half as much area.
 Q Av
(a)

Q 8.00 10 3 m 3 30.0 s
v 0.936 m s
A 2.85 10 m-4 2

(b) A1v1 A2 v2

A1
v2 v1 2 0.936 m s 1.87 m s
A2
BERNOULLIS EQUATION

In steady flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid, the pressure, the

fluid speed, and the elevation at two points are related by:

P1 12 v12 gy1 P2 12 v22 gy2

Example 16 Efflux Speed

The tank is open to the atmosphere at

the top. Find an expression for the speed
of the liquid leaving the pipe at
the bottom.
 P1 P2 Patm
v2 0

P1 12 v12 gy1 P2 12 v22 gy2

y2 y1 h

1
2 v12 gh

v1 2 gh
FORCE NEEDED TO MOVE A LAYER OF VISCOUS FLUID WITH
CONSTANT VELOCITY

The magnitude of the tangential force required to move a fluid

layer at a constant speed is given by:
Av
F
y
coefficient
of viscosity

SI Unit of Viscosity: Pas

Common Unit of Viscosity: poise (P)

1 poise (P) = 0.1 Pas

POISEUILLES LAW
R 4 P2 P1
The volume flow rate is given by: Q
8L
Example 17 Giving and Injection

A syringe is filled with a solution whose

viscosity is 1.5x10-3 Pas. The internal
radius of the needle is 4.0x10-4m.

The gauge pressure in the vein is 1900 Pa.

What force must be applied to the plunger,
so that 1.0x10-6m3 of fluid can be injected
in 3.0 s?
 8LQ
P2 P
R 4

8 1.5 10 3 Pa s 0.025 m 1.0 10 6 m 3 3.0 s
4.0 10 m
-4 4

1200 Pa
 P1 1900 Pa

P2 P1 1200 Pa

P2 3100 Pa

F P2 A 3100 Pa 8.0 10 m 0.25N
5 2
1. Iron has a property such that a 1.00m3 volume has a mass of 7.86x103 kg. If you
want to manufacture iron into cubes, the length of the side of a cube of iron that
has a mass of 200.0 g is
A. 2.94 cm B. 2.94 m C. 22.5 cm D. 22.5 m
2. A phonograph record 30.0 cm in diameter turns through an angle of 120 0. How far
does a point of its rim travel?
A. 2.09 m B. 3.14 cm C. 20.9 cm D. 31.4 cm
3.Fred walks 8km north and then 6 km in a direction 300 north of east. The magnitude
of his resultant displacement from the starting point is
A. 11 km B. 12 km C. 13km D. 14 km
4. A 1280-lb white horse is cantering at 20 ft/s. Its linear momentum is
A. 400 slug ft/s B. 800 slug ft/s C. 8000 slug ft/s D. 25, 600 slug ft/s
5.Find the momentum of a 50 g bullet whose kinetic energy is 250 J
A. 3.17 kg m/s B. 5.0 kg m/s C. 31.62 kg m/s D. 40.0 kgm/s
6. A ship leaves the island of Guam and sails 285 km at 40.00 north of west. In which
direction must it now head and how for must it sail so that its resultant displacement
will be 115 km directly east of Guam?
A. 28.80, 333.19 km B. 30.20, 183.13 km C.. 28.80, 380 km D. 30.20, 333.19 km
7. An arrow leaves a bow at 30 m/s. At what two angles could the archer point
the arrow if it is to reach a target 70 m away?
A. 500, 400 B. 250, 650 C. 300, 600 D. 220, 580
8. A 25 kg box is pulled up a ramp 20 m long and 3.0 m high by a constant
force of 120 N. If the box starts from rest and has a speed of 2.0 m/s at the
top, what is the force of friction between box and ramp?
A. 50N B. 81N C. 101N D. 200N
9. The bob of a pendulum 5.0 ft long is pulled aside so that the string is 400 from
the vertical when the bob is released, with what speed will it pass through the
bottom of its path?
A. 1.17 ft/s B. 5.8 ft/s C. 8.7 ft/s D. 11.8 ft/s
10. A 1200 kg car can make a turn of radius 40 m at a speed of 25 km/hr,
assuming the rood is level, find the minimum coefficient of static friction
between the cars tires and the road that will permit the turn to be made.
A. 0.11 B. 0.13 C. 0.15 D. 0.19
11. Two identical projectiles are fired at the same angle. The initial speed of B
is twice that of A. The range of B is
A. RB = RA B. B. RB = RA C. RB = 2RA D. RB = 4RA
12. A ball starts from rest and rolls down a hill with uniform acceleration,
traveling 150 m during the second 5.0 s of its motion. How far did it roll
during the first 5.0 s of motion?
A. 4 m B. 16 m C. 25 m D. 50 m
13. You are on the roof of the physics building, 4.60 m above the ground.
Your physics professor, who is 1.80 m tall, is walking alongside the building
at a constant speed of 1.20 m/s. if you wish to drop an egg on your
professors head, where should the professor be when you release the egg?

A. 3.00 m B. 3.30 m C. 3.60 m D. 4.00 m

14. Large cockroaches can run as fast as 1.50 m/s in short burst. Suppose you
turn on the light in a cheap motel and see one scurrying directly away from
you at a constant 1.50 m/s. If you start 0.90 m behind the cockroach with an
initial speed of 0.80 m/s toward it when minimum constant acceleration would
you need to catch up with when it has traveled 1.20 m, just short of safety
under a counter?
A. 2.02 m/s2 B. 3.00 m/s2 C. 4.02 m/s2 D. 4.56 m/s2
15. When a car is touring at 72 km/h the brakes are applied and it slows down
uniformly to 18 km/h in 5 seconds. Determine the distance covered during
the fifth second.
A. 6.5 m B. 13.5m C. 62.5 m D. 76 m