Introduction to Descriptive

Statistics
 Approaches for Describing Data
Frequency
Distributions

Measures of Central
Tendencies
Frequency Distributions:

Understanding the SPSS Output

Navigator & the Results
 Frequencies

N
s
g

a
u
uc
c
c
9
9
9 V
f
1
1
0 m
0
0 T
0 T
e

au
u
cc
c
8
4
5
5 V
2
5
5
5
0 3
3
8
0 T
M
S
5
2
M
2 T
5
8
0 T
n i

a
u
r
rr
uc
cc
1
3
3
3 V
W
9
7
7
9 L
4
5
5
5 A
A
2
3
3
7
I
1
6
6
4 N
1
6
6
0 O
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
e p

au l
r
r
ruc
c
ce
2
3
3
3 V
9
1
6
6
9 1
5
2
2
1 1
1
6
6
7 1
4
5
5
2 1
7
4
4
6 1
4
5
5
2 1
5
2
2
3 1
1
6
6
9 1
3
9
9
8 1
4
5
5
4 2
1
6
6
0 2
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 Measures of Central Tendencies
Tell us what is typical 3 Common MCT
in the data.
Mode
Help us to
summarize the data.
Median
Provide a reference
point for comparing Mean
groups within the
sample.
 The Mode
The category in the frequency distribution
which contains the most cases.

The most frequently occurring event.

Appropriate for all variables regardless of

level of measurement.
 Frequencies

N
a
osl
g

n d

au l
uc
c
c
0
9
9
9 V
f
8
1
1
0 m
8
0
0 T
0 T
8
 Frequencies
i s

N
a
o sl
p
t
8
0
0
p
s

e p

mau l
l
r
r
ruc
c
cee
2
3
3
3 V
9
1
6
6
9 1
5
2
2
1 1
1
6
6
7 1
4
5
5
2 1
7
4
4
6 1
4
5
5
2 1
5
2
2
3 1
1
6
6
9 1
3
9
9
8 1
4
5
5
4 2
1
6
6
0 2
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 The Median
The point in the distribution above or below
which 50 percent of the observations occur.
The central point in the distribution.
The point that cuts the distribution in half.
Appropriate only for interval and ratio data.
 Frequencies
i s

N
a
odsl
p
t
8
0
0
0
p
s

e p

au l
l
r
r
ruc
c
ce
2
3
3
3 V
9
1
6
6
9 1
5
2
2
1 1
1
6
6
7 1
4
5
5
2 1
7
4
4
6 1
4
5
5
2 1
5
2
2
3 1
1
6
6
9 1
3
9
9
8 1
4
5
5
4 2
1
6
6
0 2
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 Frequencies
i s

N
a
od
sl
U
8
0
0
0
M

d u

au
r
r
ruc
c
c
1
9
9
9 V
P
5
5
5
4 S
C
2
3
3
7
J
1
6
6
3 S
9
7
7
0 o
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 The Mean
The arithmetic average.

Calculated by summing all of the values

in a distribution and dividing by the total
number of cases.
 Frequencies
i s

N
a
e
od
sla
p
t
8
0
7
0
0
p
s

e p

au l
l
r
r
ruc
c
ce
2
3
3
3 V
9
1
6
6
9 1
5
2
2
1 1
1
6
6
7 1
4
5
5
2 1
7
4
4
6 1
4
5
5
2 1
5
2
2
3 1
1
6
6
9 1
3
9
9
8 1
4
5
5
4 2
1
6
6
0 2
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 Frequencies
i s

N
a
e
od
s
0
6
0
0 C

au
ru
c
cc
2
9
9
9 V
C
1
9
9
8 A
5
2
2
0 U
8
0
0 T
8
0 T
 Level of Measurement &
Descriptive Statistics
Nominal: FD & Mode
Ordinal: FD & Mode
Interval/Ratio: FD, Mean, Median, & Mode.