Gas Turbines

Prepared by Venkat Chintala

Asst. Professor(SG),
Mech. Engg. Deptt., CoES, UPES
 Contents
Working principle of GT
Gas cycles
Simple gas turbine cycle, cycles with heat
exchange, reheat and intercooled compression
Compressor and turbine efficiencies, pressure
losses, heat exchanger effectiveness, variation of
specific heats
Comparative performance of practical cycles.
Methods of accounting losses
Stagnation properties
 TURBINES: Machines to extract fluid power
from flowing fluids

Steam Turbine Water Turbines Wind Turbines Gas Turbines

High Pressure, High Temperature gas

Aircraft Engines
Generated inside the engine
Power Generation
Expands through a specially designed TURBINE
 The most Unwanted Characteristic of Rankine Group of
Power Generation Systems

The amount of cooling required by any steam-cycle power

plant is determined by its thermal efficiency.
It has nothing essentially to do with whether it is fuelled by
coal, gas or uranium.
Where availability of cooling water is limited, cooling does not
need to be a constraint on new generating capacity.
Alternative cooling options are available at slightly higher cost.
Nuclear power plants have greater flexibility in location than
coal-fired plants due to fuel logistics, giving them more
potential for their siting to be determined by cooling
considerations.
 Cooling Problems !!!!
The bigger the temperature difference between the
internal heat source and the external environment where
the surplus heat is dumped, the more efficient is the
process in achieving mechanical work.
The desirability of having a high temperature internally
and a low temperature environmentally.
In a coal-fired or conventionally gas-fired plant it is
possible to run the internal boilers at higher temperatures
than those with finely-engineered nuclear fuel assemblies
which must avoid damage.
The external consideration gives rise to desirably siting
power plants alongside very cold water.
 Steam Cycle Heat Transfer
For the heat transfer function the water is circulated
continuously in a closed loop steam cycle and hardly any is
lost.
The water needs to be clean and fairly pure.
This function is much the same whether the power plant is
nuclear, coal-fired, or conventionally gas-fired.
Cooling to condense the steam and surplus heat discharge.
The second function for water in such a power plant is to cool
the system so as to condense the low-pressure steam and
recycle it.
This is a major consideration in siting power plants, and in the
UK siting study in 2009 all recommendations were for sites
within 2 km of abundant water - sea or estuary.
 Water, Water & Water .!!!!!

A nuclear or coal plant running at 33% thermal efficiency

will need to dump about 14% more heat than one at 36%
efficiency.
Nuclear plants currently being built have about 34-36%
thermal efficiency, depending on site (especially water
temperature).
Older ones are often only 32-33% efficient.
The relatively new Stanwell coal-fired plant in Queensland
runs at 36%, but some new coal-fired plants approach
40% and one of the new nuclear reactors claims 39%.
 GAS TURBINES
Invented in 1930 by Frank Whittle
Patented in 1934
First used for aircraft propulsion in 1942 on Me262 by
Germans during second world war
Currently most of the aircrafts and ships use GT engines
Used for power generation
Manufacturers: General Electric, Pratt &Whitney,
SNECMA, Rolls Royce, Honeywell, Siemens
Westinghouse, Alstom
Indian take: Kaveri Engine by GTRE (DRDO)
History of the gas turbine
150 BC Hero, Aeolipile
1232 - Chinese began to use rockets
as weapons (battle of Kai Keng)
1629 - Giovanni Branca developed a
stamping mill
History of the gas turbine
1687 - Sir Isaac Newton
announces the three laws of
motion
1. Every object in a state of uniform
motion tends to remain in that
state of motion unless an external
force is applied to it (Galileos concept
of inertia)
2. F = ma
3. For every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
 History of the gas turbine
1872 - Dr. F. Stolze designed the
first true gas turbine engine
multistage axial compressor and
turbine turbomachinery wideal c p T3 T4 c p T2 T1
No net power output. compressor power
turbinepower output requiremen t
Brayton cycle is loss sensitive!
Specific work output = w [J/kg] wactual c p T3 T4 a c p T2 a T1

= difference between two large decreases in increases in
real cycle real cycle
numbers
1903 - Aegidius Elling of
Norway built the first
successful gas turbine
both rotary compressors and
turbines - the first gas turbine
with excess power.
History gas turbine
Sir Frank Whittle, England
patented a design for a gas
turbine for jet propulsion.
The specifications of the first jet
engine were: Airflow=25 lb/s, Fuel
Consumption = 200 gal/hr or 1300 lb/hr, Thrust =
1000 lb, Specific Fuel consumption = 1.3 lb/hr/lb
Powered the Gloster E28/39
Britain on 15 May 1941.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Great power-to- Expensive:
weight ratio high speeds and high operating
temperatures
compared to designing and manufacturing
reciprocating engines. gas turbines is a tough problem
from both the engineering and
Smaller than their materials standpoint
reciprocating Tend to use more fuel when
counterparts of the they are idling
same power. They prefer a constant rather
Lower emission than a fluctuating load.
levels

That makes gas turbines great for things like transcontinental jet aircraft and power
plants, but explains why we don't have one under the hood of our car.
 Advantages
Very high power-to- weight ratio, compared to reciprocating
engines.

Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power

rating.

Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines

Low operating pressures & High operation speeds.

Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

 Disadvantages
Higher Cost.

Less efficient than reciprocating engines at

idle.

Longer startup than reciprocating engines.

Less responsive to changes in power demand

compared to reciprocating engines.
 Gas turbine power plant
Advantages of gas turbine power plant :
Storage of fuel requires less area and handling is easy.
The cost of maintenance is less.
It is simple in construction. There is no need for boiler, condenser and other
accessories as in the case of steam power plants.
Cheaper fuel such as kerosene , paraffin, benzene and powdered coal can
be used which are cheaper than petrol and diesel.
Gas turbine plants can be used in water scarcity areas.
Less pollution and less water is required.

Disadvantages of gas turbine power plant :

66% of the power developed is used to drive the compressor. Therefore
the gas turbine unit has a low thermal efficiency.
The running speed of gas turbine is in the range of (40,000 to 100,000
rpm) and the operating temperature is as high as 1100 12600C. For this
reason special metals and alloys have to be used for the various parts of
the turbine.
High frequency noise from the compressor is objectionable.
3 August 2017 16
 Applications
Applications
Turbojet engines

Marine field

Railway engines

Generation of electric
power

Industry
 Application in Aircraft

Nearly all the military aircrafts are powered by gas turbine.

These are used for the higher generation of power in plane.

Applications of gas turbine:
Gas turbines are used to drive pumps, compressors and high
speed cars.
Used in aircraft and ships for their propulsion. They are not
suitable for automobiles because of their very high speeds.
Power generation (used for peak load and as stand-by unit).

Note :
Gas turbines run at even higher temperatures than steam
turbines, the temperature may be as high as 1100 12600C.
The thermal efficiency of gas turbine made of metal
components do not exceed 36%.
Research is underway to use ceramic components at turbine
inlet temperature of 13500C or more, and reach thermal
efficiencies over 40% in a 300 kW unit.
3 August 2017 19
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Intake
Slow down incoming air
Remove distortions
Compressor
Dynamically Compress air
Combustor
Heat addition through chemical reaction
Turbine
Run the compressor
Nozzle/ Free Turbine
Generation of thrust power/shaft power
 1. To run the compressor
Engine power 2. To run the Propeller
(Air application) 3. To produce thrust in propelling turbine

Engine power 1. To run the compressor

(Power application) 2. To run the alternator
 How does Gas Turbine works?
Gas turbine functions in the same way as the
Compressed Ignition Engine. It sucks in air from
the atmosphere, compresses it.

The fuel is injected and ignited. The gases expand

doing work and finally exhausts outside.

The only difference is instead of the reciprocating

motion, gas turbine uses a rotary motion
throughout.
 Air is compressed to high pressure by a fan-
like device called the compressor.

Then fuel and compressed air are mixed in

a combustion chamber and ignited.

Hot gases are given off, which spin the

turbine wheels.

Most of the turbines power runs the

compressor. Part of it drives the
generator/machinery.

Gas turbines burn fuels such as oil, gaseous

fuel and pulverised (powdered) coal.

Instead of using the heat to produce steam,

as in steam turbines, gas turbines use the
hot gases directly to turn the turbine blades.
24
Main Components of the Gas Turbine

1. Compressor 2. Combuster 3. Turbine

 1. Compressor

The compressor sucks

the air from the
atmosphere and
compresses it and guides
it to the combustion
chamber.

The air compressor and turbine are mounted at either end on a

common horizontal axle (shaft), with the combustion chamber
between them.
Gas turbines are not self starting. A starting motor initially drives the
compressor till the first combustion of fuel takes place, later, part of
the turbines power runs the compressor.
The air compressor sucks in air and compresses it, thereby increasing
its pressure.
 3. Turbine
Stationary guide vanes
of turbine direct the gases
to the next set of blades.
The kinetic energy of the
hot gases impacting on the
blades rotates the blades
and the shaft.
The burning gases expand rapidly and rush into the turbine, where
they cause the turbine wheels to rotate.
Hot gases move through a multistage gas turbine.
Like in steam turbine, the gas turbine also has fixed(stationary) and
moving(rotor) blades.
The stationary blades guide the moving gases to the rotor blades
and adjust its velocity.
The shaft of the turbine is coupled to a generator or machinery to
drive it.
 2. Combuster
This is an annular
chamber where the fuel
burns and is similar to
the furnace in a boiler.

In the combustion chamber, the compressed air combines with fuel

and the resulting mixture is burnt.
The greater the pressure of air, the better the fuel air mixture burns.
Modern gas turbines usually use liquid fuel, but they may also use
gaseous fuel, natural gas or gas produced artificially by gasification of
a solid fuel.
Note :
The combination of air compressor and combustion chamber is
called as gas generator.
Actual view of gas turbine
As there is cut off the auxilliary engine gas turbine gets
started.

As the speed of the plane increases the compressor gets

rotated and compresses the air and that get combusted in
combustion chamber.

Then the exhaust gases are thrown out.

Three zones of combustion process :
1. Primary zone to provide the necessary high temperature or
rapid combustion
2. Secondary zone to complete the combustion
3. Tertiary or dilution zone the remaining air is mixed with the
products of combustion to cool then down the temperature
required at inlet to the turbine
 Gas Turbine Combustion

F/A 0.01
Combustion efficiency : 98%
 Emissions in Gas Turbines

IGCC: Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

GTCC: Gas Turbine Combined Cycle

Lower emission compared to all conventional methods (except nuclear)

Regulations require further reduction in emission levels
 Open Cycle Gas turbine
Fresh air is drawn into the
compressor from atmosphere.

Heat is added by combustion

of fuel.

Exhaust from turbine is

released in atmosphere.

Arrangement of continuous
replacement of working medium
is required.
 Layout of a gas turbine power plant

3 August 2017 54
 Layout of gas turbine power plant
Starting motor:
Gas turbines are not self starting.
They require a starting motor to
first bring the turbine to the
minimum speed called coming in
speed, for this purpose a starting
motor is required.

Low pressure compressor(LPC):

The purpose of the compressor is
to compress the air. Air from the
atmosphere is drawn into the LPC
and is compressed.
3 August 2017
Intercooler:
The air after compression in the LPC
is hot. It is cooled by the intercooler.
The intercooler is circulated with
cooling water.
55
 Layout of gas turbine power plant
High pressure compressor(HPC):
The air from the intercooler enters
the HPC where it is further
compressed to a high pressure.
The compressed air passes
through a regenerator.

Regenerator(Heat exchanger):
The air entering the combustion
Combustion chamber:
chamber(CC) for combustion
The fuel(natural gas, pulverized coal,
must be hot. The heat from the
kerosene or gasoline) is injected into the
exhaust gases is picked up by the
combustion chamber.
compressed air entering the
The fuel gets ignited because of the
combustion chamber.
compressed air.
The fuel along with the compressed air
is ignited sometimes with a spark plug.
3 August 2017 56
 Layout of gas turbine power plant
High pressure turbine (HPT):
In the beginning the starting
motor runs the compressor shaft.
The hot gases(products of
combustion) expands through the
high pressure turbine.
It is important to note that when
the HPT shaft rotates it infact
drives the compressor shaft which
is coupled to it. Now the HPT
runs the compressor and the
starting motor is stopped.
Note :
Only 34% of the power developed by
About 66% of the power the plant is used to generate electric
developed by the gas turbine
power plant is used to run the power.
compressor.

3 August 2017 57
 Layout of gas turbine power plant
Low pressure turbine (LPT):
The purpose of the LPT is to
produce electric power.
The shaft of the LPT is directly
coupled with the generator for
producing electricity.
The hot gases(products of
combustion) after leaving the
HPT is again sent to a combustion
chamber where it further
undergoes combustion.
The exhaust gases after leaving The heat from the hot gases is used
the LPT passes through the to preheat the air entering the
regenerator before being combustion chamber. This preheating
exhausted through the chimney of the air improves the efficiency of the
into the atmosphere. combustion chamber.

3 August 2017 58
 Closed Cycle Gas turbine
In this , cycle is closed and
exhaust is not open to
atmosphere.

In this there is continuously

supply of same working gas.

Higher density gases like

hydrogen or carbon dioxide is
used.

So we get higher efficiency

then open cycle GT.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS
OF GAS POWER CYCLES Thermal efficiency of heat engines
Most power-producing devices operate on cycles.
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle
closely but is made up totally of internally reversible
processes.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest
thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating
between the same temperature levels. Unlike ideal
cycles, they are totally reversible, and unsuitable as a
realistic model.

Modeling is a
powerful engineering
tool that provides
great insight and The analysis of many complex
simplicity at the processes can be reduced to
expense of some loss a manageable level by
in accuracy. utilizing some idealizations.
60
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area
enclosed by the cyclic curve to the area
under the heat-addition process curve
represents the thermal efficiency of the
cycle. Any modification that increases
the ratio of these two areas will also
increase the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
The idealizations and simplifications in the
analysis of power cycles:
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in
pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes
take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various
components of a system are well
insulated, and heat transfer through them
is negligible.

On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the

process curve represents the net work of the cycle.

61
THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE
IN ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible
processes: isothermal heat addition, isentropic
expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic
compression.
For both ideal and actual cycles: Thermal efficiency
increases with an increase in the average temperature at
which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease
in the average temperature at which heat is rejected
from the system.

P-v and T-s diagrams of a

A steady-flow Carnot engine. Carnot cycle.
62
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
The combustion process is replaced by a working fluid to its initial state.
heat-addition process in ideal cycles.

Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be air

with constant specific heats at room temperature (25C).
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable.

63
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-TURBINE
ENGINES
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition process
from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure
heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection

An open-cycle gas-turbine engine. A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine.

64
 Pressure
ratio

Thermal
efficiency of the
ideal Brayton
cycle as a
T-s and P-v diagrams for function of the
the ideal Brayton cycle. pressure ratio.
65
 The two major application areas of gas- The highest temperature in the cycle is
turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and limited by the maximum temperature that
the turbine blades can withstand. This also
electric power generation.
limits the pressure ratios that can be used in
the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary
oxidant for the combustion of the fuel, and it
serves as a coolant to keep the temperature
of various components within safe limits. An
airfuel ratio of 50 or above is not
uncommon.

For fixed values of Tmin and Tmax, the net

work of the Brayton cycle first increases The fraction of the turbine work
with the pressure ratio, then reaches a used to drive the compressor is
maximum at rp = (Tmax/Tmin)k/[2(k - 1)], and called the back work ratio.
finally decreases. (W compressor/W turbine) 66
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine
Cycles from Idealized Ones

Reasons: Irreversibilities in turbine

and compressors, pressure drops,
heat losses
Exergy Analysis Future scope

Isentropic efficiencies of the compressor

and turbine

The deviation of an actual gas-

turbine cycle from the ideal
Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.
67
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the exhaust gas
leaving the turbine is often considerably higher than the
temperature of the air leaving the compressor.
Therefore, the high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be
heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat
exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result
of regeneration since less fuel is used for the same work
output. T-s diagram of a Brayton
cycle with regeneration.

A gas-turbine engine with regenerator. 68

 Effectiveness of
regenerator
Effectiveness under cold-air
standard assumptions
Under cold-air standard
assumptions

T-s diagram of a Brayton cycle Can regeneration

with regeneration. be used at high
pressure ratios?

The thermal efficiency depends

on the ratio of the minimum to
Thermal
maximum temperatures as well
efficiency of
as the pressure ratio.
the ideal
Regeneration is most effective Brayton cycle
at lower pressure ratios and low with and
minimum-to-maximum without
temperature ratios. regeneration. 69
 For minimizing work input to
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH compressor and maximizing
INTERCOOLING, REHEATING, AND work output from turbine:
REGENERATION

A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage expansion

with reheating, and regeneration and its T-s diagram.
70
Multistage compression with intercooling: The work required to compress a gas between
two specified pressures can be decreased by carrying out the compression process in stages
and cooling the gas in between. This keeps the specific volume as low as possible.

Multistage expansion with reheating keeps the specific volume of the working fluid as high
as possible during an expansion process, thus maximizing work output.
Intercooling and reheating always decreases the thermal efficiency unless they are
accompanied by regeneration. Why?

Comparison of
work inputs to
a single-stage
compressor
(1AC) and a
two-stage
compressor
with As the number of compression and expansion
intercooling stages increases, the gas-turbine cycle with
(1ABD). intercooling, reheating, and regeneration
approaches the Ericsson cycle.
71
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF GAS POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction
for a closed system

For a steady-flow
system

Steady-flow, one-inlet, one-exit

Exergy destruction of a cycle

For a cycle with heat transfer

only with a source and a sink

Closed system exergy

Stream exergy

A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest

irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
72
r =p2/p1

Gamma=1.4 for
air
T9 =T8
IDEAL JET-PROPULSION CYCLES
Gas-turbine engines are widely used to power aircraft because they are light and compact
and have a high power-to-weight ratio.
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jet-propulsion cycle.
The ideal jet-propulsion cycle differs from the simple ideal Brayton cycle in that the gases
are not expanded to the ambient pressure in the turbine. Instead, they are expanded to a
pressure such that the power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the
compressor and the auxiliary equipment.
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero. The gases that exit the turbine at a
relatively high pressure are subsequently accelerated in a nozzle to provide the thrust to
propel the aircraft.
Aircraft are propelled by accelerating a fluid in the opposite direction to motion. This is
accomplished by either slightly accelerating a large mass of fluid (propeller-driven engine)
or greatly accelerating a small mass of fluid (jet or turbojet engine) or both (turboprop
engine).

In jet engines, the high-

temperature and high-pressure
gases leaving the turbine are
accelerated in a nozzle to
provide thrust.
108
 Thrust (propulsive force)
Propulsive efficiency
Propulsive power

Propulsive power is the

thrust acting on the
aircraft through a
distance per unit time.

Basic components of a turbojet engine and the T-s diagram for the ideal turbojet cycle.
110
Modifications to Turbojet Engines
The first airplanes built were all propeller-driven,
with propellers powered by engines essentially
identical to automobile engines.
Both propeller-driven engines and jet-propulsion-
driven engines have their own strengths and
limitations, and several attempts have been made
to combine the desirable characteristics of both in
one engine.
Two such modifications are the propjet engine and Energy supplied to an aircraft (from
the turbofan engine. the burning of a fuel) manifests
itself in various forms.

A turbofan engine. The most widely used

engine in aircraft
propulsion is the
turbofan (or fanjet)
engine wherein a large
fan driven by the turbine
forces a considerable
amount of air through a
duct (cowl) surrounding
the engine.

111
 A modern jet engine used
to power Boeing 777
aircraft. This is a Pratt &
Whitney PW4084
turbofan capable of
producing 374 kN of
thrust. It is 4.87 m long,
has a 2.84 m diameter
fan, and it weighs 6800
kg.

Various engine types:

Turbofan, Propjet, Ramjet, Sacramjet, Rocket

A turboprop engine. A ramjet engine.

112
Variation of Jet Technologies
4 MW GT for Power Generation
 Steam Turbine Vs Gas Turbine : Power Generation
Experience gained from a large number of exhaust-gas turbines for
diesel engines, a temp. of 538C was considered absolutely safe for
uncooled heat resisting steel turbine blades.
This would result in obtainable outputs of 2000-8000 KW with
compressor turbine efficiencies of 73-75%, and an overall cycle
efficiency of 17-18%.
First Gas turbine electro locomotive 2500 HP ordered from BBC by
Swiss Federal Railways
The advent of high pressure and temperature steam turbine with
regenerative heating of the condensate and air pre-heating, resulted
in coupling efficiencies of approx. 25%.
The gas turbine having been considered competitive with steam
turbine plant of 18% which was considered not quite satisfactory.
The Gas turbine was unable to compete with modern base load
steam turbines of 25% efficiency.
There was a continuous development in steam power plant which led
to increase of Power Generation Efficiencies of 35%+
This hard reality required consideration of a different application for
the gas turbine.
 Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)
A combined cycle gas turbine power
plant, frequently identified by CCGT
shortcut, is essentially an electrical
power plant in which a gas turbine and
a steam turbine are used in
combination to achieve greater
efficiency than would be possible
independently. The gas
turbine drives an electrical generator.
The gas turbine exhaust is then used to
produce steam in a heat exchanger
(steam generator) to supply a steam
turbine whose output provides the
means to generate more electricity.
However the Steam Turbine is not
necessarily, in that case the plant
produce electricity and industrial steam
which can be used for heating or
industrial purpose.
 Basic Gas Turbine Information
Main Gas Turbine Manufactures:
General Electrics, Simens Westinghouse
& Alstom

Efficiency approx 40% for gas turbine

however in the CCGT plant the efficiency
is 50-60% (even higher for cogenerated
plant)

Low Green Gas Emission C02, NOx & Sox

Cheaper comparing to other technology

e.g. CCS

Lifetime 30-40 years

How it works?
 Needs for Future Gas Turbines
Power Generation
Fuel Economy
Low Emissions
Alternative fuels
Military Aircrafts
High Thrust
Low Weight Half the size and twice the thrust
Commercial Aircrafts
Low emissions
High Thrust
Double the size of the Aircraft and
Low Weight
double the distance traveled with
Fuel Economy
50% NOx
Ongoing Research at IIT, Kanpur

Effect of inlet disturbances

Combustion in recirculating flows
Spray Combustion
 Effect of Inlet Disturbance

At IIT, Kanpur
Tunable inlet to create weak disturbance of varying
frequency
Bluff body stabilized flame
Unsteady pressure and heat release measurement
Pressure Amplitude variation

= 0.2211 L = 20 cm

Pressure oscillations increases

with decreasing length
Dominant frequency 27 Hz
Acoustic frequency 827 Hz
Pressure and Heat Release
Low Frequency Variation with Inlet Length
Frequency Amplitude

45 124

40
122
35
120
30

frequency (Hz)

SPL (Db)
25 118

20 116

15
114
10
112
5

0 110
10 15 20 25 30
Length of Inlet (cm )

ma 3.0 g / s , = 0.3455
 Flow Dynamics

Primary zone
Fuel air mixing
Intense combustion
Short combustion length
High turbulence
Fuel rich combustion
 Image Processing

Filtered out image from the noises Grayscale image

Simulation results

Intensity image
 Spray Combustion: Issues
Non-symmetrical spray flames and hot
streaks
Serious damage to combustor liner
Combustor exit temperature
Flame location, shape and pattern
Emission Levels
Need for controlled atomization
Big Drops => Longer Evaporation Time => Incomplete
Combustion => Unburned Hydrocarbons & Soot,
Reduced Efficiency

Small Drops => Faster Evaporation and Mixing =>

Elongated Combustion Zone => More NOx

Uniform size distribution for favorable pattern factor

Reduced thermal loading on liner and turbine
 Internally Mixed Swirl Atomizer
Good atomization with small
pressure drop
Both hollow-cone and solid cone
spray from same atomizer
(wide range of applications)
Possible to atomize very viscous
liquid
Self cleaning
Finer atomization at low flow rates Atomization of engine oil
Less sensitive to manufacturing
defects
The liquid flow rate and atomization
quality can be controlled
Performance
 Multi-head internally mixed atomizer
Build to provide a throughput rate in excess to 0.5 LPM with a droplet
size in the range of 20-30 mm

2.5
LIQUID SUPPLY PRESSURE
y = 0.149x-0.9698
2 5 psi
10 psi
Liquid Flow Rate (LPM)

15 psi
20 psi
1.5
25 psi

1
90

80 LIQUID SUPPLY PRESSURE

0.5
70 5 psi
60 10 psi
0 15 psi

D32 (mm)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 50 20 psi
ALR 25 psi
40

30
Flow rate independent of pressure 20

difference 10

0
Reduced feedline coupling 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
ALR
 Emissions in spray flames
160 100 4500
Distance from Flame Holder
z=5mm z=10mm 90 4000
140
z=20mm z=35mm 80 Exp 3500
NOX (Theory)
Sauter Mean Diameter (mm)

70
120 3000

NOx Theory (ppm)

60

Nox (ppm)
2500
100 50
2000
40
80 1500
30
1000
20
60
10 500

40 0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Radial Distance from Center Line (cm)

Measured values quite less compared to the theoretical predictions

Inherent fuel staging reduces the NOx

Longer flame => less NOx

Conclusions on research work at IITK
Disturbances can lead to combustion
oscillations
Recirculating flow helps in reducing
disturbances
Controlled Atomization can be achieved
through air-assisting
Spray combustion reduces NOx emissions
through fuel staging
 Other aspects for research

Design Considerations
Material Considerations
Manufacturing Processes
 Design Considerations
Geometry
Cooling Vanes
Attachment Interface
Safety Factors
 Geometry
Strength / Fatigue Life
Each row will be different
Air Flow (CFD Package)
Machineability

General Turbine Blade Shape

 Cooling Vanes

Blades must be kept cool

Often operate near the metal melting
point
An increase of only 17 C can decrease
the engine life by half
Cool (300 C ) air is run out of the blades
through small holes (vanes), keeping the
blades from melting.
 Attachment
Keep Stress Concentrations Low
Fir Tree Attachment
Reduced stress
concentrations
Easy replacement
Also known as the
Christmas Tree
 Safety Factors
Higher S.F. is usually the best.
But what if the engine runs out of control at speeds
higher than intended?
The energy of the rotating blades goes up with 2
What happens if the blades brake at 10% overload?
20%, 30%, 40%, 50% ?
Too much energy and the blades might break
through the engine shroud and into the fuselage.
 Material Considerations
Environment
Creep
Current Materials Used
Materials in Research
 Environment
Air Temperature: Between 850 and 1600 C
Melting Temperature:
Steel:1400C
Nickel Alloy: 1200C
Titanium:1650C
Turbine RPM: Appx. 20,000 rpm
 Creep

Turbine blades elongate during their life

Tip clearance
Result of environment and grain structure
Soft abradable lining
Directional solidification (cooling)
Single crystal structure
 Current Materials Used
Initially Steel
Nickel Alloys
Most common material is Titanium
Laser peening
Ceramic Coatings
 Material In Research
Ceramic blades

Carbon composite blades

Noise reduction
Light weight
 Manufacturing Processes
Machining (not too common)
Investment Casting
Secondary machining
Electro-Chemical Machining
Single operation
 Design Sites
1. www.pccsmp.com (manufacturing)
2. www.turboblades.com (manufacturing)
3. www.giverin.demon.co.uk/NewFiles/HTWTu
rbines.html (information)
4. www.gas-turbines.com/begin (information)
5. www.pratt-whitney.com (engine manufacturer)
 Developments in Gas Turbine Cycles

1. The wet compression (WC) cycle

2. The steam injected gas turbine (STIG) cycle
3. The integrated WC & STIG (SWC) cycle
4. Themo-chemical Recuperation cycles
 Wet compression

One of the most effective ways to increase the gas turbine

power output is to reduce the amount of work required
for its compressor.
A gas turbine compressor consumes about 30 to 50% of
work produced by the turbine.
 The wet compression (WC) cycle
Fuel

Combustor

Compressor Water Injection Turbine

Inlet Duct
Intake Air
Representing wet compression process on P-V diagram
W isothermal = f-1-2T-g-f (isothermal)
Wwet compression = f-1-2K-g-f (wet compression)
W isentropic = f-1-2S-g-f (isentropic)
W polytropic = f-1-2n-g-f (polytropic)

g P 2 2T 2k 2s 2n

f P 1
1

0 V
 The wet compression (WC) cycle

The wet compression cycle has the following benefits

over the simple cycle.
1. Lower compressor work
2. Higher turbine work
3. Higher cycle efficiency
 ISENTROPIC INDEX OF WET COMPRESSION PROCESS

Isentropic index of wet compression can be obtained from

the equation

L dw k

1 R dT k 1
Where
k=Isentropic index of wet compression,
dw/dT = Evaporative rate kg/k,
L= Latent heat kJ/kg,
R=Gas constant of humid air kJ/kg k.
 ACTUAL WET COMPRESSION INDEX

Actual wet compression index can be obtained from the equation

m L dw 1 n

m 1 1 R dT 1 n 1

Where
m=polytropic index of actual wet compression process,
n=polytropic index of actual dry air compression
 Compressor work with wet compression

Compressor work with wet compression is a function of

1. Pressure ratio ,
2. Evaporative rate dw/dT and
3. Geometry of the compressor.
Wet compression work is much lower than that of dry air
compression work.
The higher is the pressure ratio, more the saving in
compressor work.
 Variation of wet compression work with pressure ratio

800

700

600
work w(kj/kg)

500

400 W_di
W_da
300 W_wi
W_wa
200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40
pressure ratio

(Evaporative rate dw/dT=7.5e-4 kg/k)

 VARIATION OF WET COMPRESSION WORK WITH THE
EVAPORATIVE RATE FOR A GIVEN PRESSURE RATIO

280
260
work (kj/kg)

W_di
240
W_da
220
W_wa
200
180
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007 0.0008
Evaporation rate dw/dT(kg/k)

Pressure ratio = 7
 REAL WET COMPRESSION WORK CONSIDERING OFF
DESIGN BEHAVIOUR

For calculation purposes, if the design (dry) value of the

polytropic efficiency is assumed to be maintained throughout the
compression process, it is tantamount to the operation of the
compressor at increased operating pressure ratio.
 Comparison of Work Input For Wet and Dry Compression
Considering Off-Design Behaviour

Sl Evaporati Operatin Real wet Dry work

no ve rate, g work KJ/kg
kg/k Pr. ratio kJ/kg
1 0 10.2 343.269 343.269

2 0.00015 11.5597 316.649 370.415

3 0.00035 11.5737 284.812 370.683

4 0.00075 11.6017 255.000 371.218

 ACTUAL WET COMPRESSION WORK CONSIDERING OFF
DESIGN BEHAVIOUR

400
375
Work input kj/kg

350
Design
325
condition
300
Off-design
275
condition
250
225
200
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008
Evaporative rate, dw/dT,kg/k
Losses in compressor and turbine
Pressure Losses
Mechanical Losses
Variation of specific heat
 GAS TURBINE
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
Operating Factors Affecting Maintenance
Type and quality of fuel
Condensate, contaminants, etc
Starting Frequency
Thermal cycles
Load cycles
Thermal cycles
Environment
Abrasive and corrosive condition
 Inspection Interval
Following table shows the operating hours at
which inspection should be performed for
operation on gas fuel and continuous duty
Recommended Inspection Interval

Note: (1) Hours mean quivalent Operating Hoursreflecting the operation conditions of Gas Turbines
Roll-in and Roll-out Procedure
One (1) complete set of hot parts shall be ready for
Rolling-in. The parts taken out (Roll-out) shall be
reused/repaired/rejuvenated prior to the next inspection
 Summary of GT Inspection
Inspection Procedure
Combustor Inspection Dismantling combustor
basket
Turbine Inspection Lifting the upper housing
of the turbine
Major Overhaul Inspection Lifting the upper housing
of the turbine and
compressor
Lifting the rotor
NDT (1) : Non Destructive Test (Penetrant Test)
NDT (2) : Non Destructive Test (Penetrant Test, Magnetic Particle test and Ultrasonic test
Inspection Items
Visual inspection & NDT (1) of fuel nozzles,
combustor baskets and transition pieces
Visual inspection of turbine blade row 4 and
vane row 1 and 4
Visual inspection of compressor IGV, blade
row 1 and vane row 1
Visual inspection and NDT (1) of turbine
blades, vanes and seals
Combustor inspection is carried out at the
same time
Visual inspection & NDT (2) of all
components from expansion joint of the inlet
air to the first expansion joint of the exhaust
gas
Inspection of auxiliaries, control systems
and instruments
 Combustor Inspection
No 1. Compressor inlet (1)
No 2. Turbine blade row 4 (1)
No 3. Flame detector and igniter (2)
No 4. Fuel nozzle (2)
No 5. Combustor basket (2)
No 6. Transition piece (2) (1): Visual Inspection
(2): Roll-in & Roll-out Parts
Combustion Inspection Schedule
(for one (1) Gas Turbine)
 Turbine Inspection
No 1. Compressor inlet (1)
No 2. Flame detector and igniter (2)
No 3. Fuel nozzle (2)
No 4. Combustor basket (2)
No 5. Transition piece (2)
No 6. Turbine blade (2)
No 7. Turbine vane (2)
No 8. Compressor last row and
OGVs blade and diaphragm (1)
(1): Visual Inspection
(2): Roll-in & Roll-out Parts
Turbine Inspection Schedule
(for one (1) Gas Turbine)
 Major Overhaul Inspection

No 1. Flame detector and igniter (1) No 8. Exhaust turbine and

No 2. Fuel nozzle (1)
No 3. Combustor basket (1)
No 4. Transition piece (1)
No 5. Turbine blade (1)
No 6. Turbine vane (1)
No 7. Compressor blade and diaphragm
compressor casing
No 9. Compressor blade ring
No 10. Turbine blade ring #1, #2, #3
and #4
Turbine journal brg and thrust brg
Rotor (2)

(1): Visual Inspection

(2): Roll-in & Roll-out Parts
Major Overhaul Inspection Schedule
(for one (1) Gas Turbine)
Routine Maintenance
Thank u