Chapter 12

Work Motivation

INP3004/MAN3360

Dr. Steve
 Motivation

Performance = Ability x Opportunity x Motivation

Ability KSAs
Opportunity supportive environment, equipment,
peers
Motivation Willingness to exert effort
 What motivates you?

Money
Praise
Sense of accomplishment
Power
Affiliation
 Theories of Motivation
Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
Behavior is determined by the lowest unmet need
Spend our lives trying reach Self-Actualization

SA
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
 Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory
Critique
Self-Actualization is poorly defined (measure?)
Others proposed fewer levels of need
Question whether needs must be met in order
Little if any empirical support
More descriptive of life than theory of motivation
in the workplace
 Theories of Motivation
Equity Theory (Adams)
Equity Theory A social comparison theory that
asks, Is the ratio of what you receive from your job
as compared to what you put in the same
proportion as that of other workers?
Is (Input / Outcome) self = (Input / Outcome) other?
Inputs education level, intelligence, experience,
effort, skill, expertise
Outcomes pay, benefits, status, recognition,
working conditions
 Equity Theory

Self Other Comparison

20 / 20 20 / 20 Fair no inequity
20 / 10 40 / 20 Fair no inequity
20 / 20 20 / 40 Unfair underpaid
20 / 40 20 / 20 Unfair overpaid
 Equity Theory

How do you fix inequity? (How does inequity motivate

us?)
If overpaid hourly rate reduce inequity by increasing
effort
If overpaid on piecemeal rate improve quality, without
increasing quantity
If underpaid on hourly rate reduce effort, lower quality
or fewer products
If underpaid on piecemeal rate produce more at lower
quality
 Equity Theory
Critique
Some empirical evidence individuals found to reduce
effort when believed they were underpaid
Other ways to fix inequity when perceive underpayment:
Ask for more $$
Pressure others to change their efforts
Find other comparison
Quit
Think of bad things comparison person puts up with
Problems
Rationalize overpayment
Not everyone makes comparisons
Not a lot of empirical support in overpayment condition
 Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
Effort Performance Reward Goals
Five Part model
1. Job Outcomes (O) pay, promotion, satisfaction, transfer,
fired, etc.
2. Valence (V) Rated attractiveness of outcome (value)
Example: Promotion = +10, Fired = -10, Transfer = -5
3. Instrumentality (I) Relationship between performance
and outcome. (probability 0 1.0)
4. Expectancy (E) Perception that effort leads to
performance (probability 0 1.0)
5. Force (F) Motivation as a function of other 4 variables
Force = E ( V I)
 Expectancy Theory
Example

Outcomes Valence Instrumentality Expectancy Force

Promotion 10 .5
Raise 8 .1 .5
Transfer -5 0

Force = .5 [(10 x .5) + (8 x .1) + (-5 x 0)] = 2.9

 Expectancy Theory
Validation
Force = 2.9, So What?
Correlate force score with other measure of effort to
validate theory (e.g., hrs spent on job, peer ratings, etc.).
Validate
Between Subjects experiment compare different individuals
doing the same job (Who)
Are those with high force score, rated as high in motivation?
Within Subjects experiment compare same individual across
tasks (What)
Are tasks associated with higher force scores the ones on which
individuals give most effort?
Results: theory predicts what tasks are motivating to
individuals better than who is most motivated to do task
 Expectancy Theory
Implications
Placement vs. Selection
Theory better predicts what tasks a person is most
motivated to perform than who is most motivated
Placement validities: .5 to .6
Selection validities: .3 to .4
How to make theory work for you (as a Mgr.)
1. Ensure positive job outcomes are valued (high
Valence)
2. Ensure workers know what it takes to obtain outcomes
(high Expectancy)
3. Ensure workers know that performing well leads to
rewards (high Instrumentality)
 Theories of Motivation
Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)
Based on Thorndikes Law of Effect
When good things happen as a result of a behavior, that behavior
is more likely to be repeated (opposite is true as well).
Skinner suggests not a theory at all, but a description of
the cause of behaviors
MOTIVATION?
SD--- R Sr+
SD = Discriminative Stimulus Antecedent event that sets
stage for behavior to occur
R = Response Behavior
Sr+ = Reinforcing Stimulus Consequence of behavior
 Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Interval receive Sr+ for correct behavior after fixed time period
has elapsed
Scalloping response pattern
Example paycheck every 2 weeks
Fixed Ratio receive Sr+ given # of correct responses
Post-reinforcement pauses
Example Bonus for every 10 vacuum cleaners sold
Variable Interval receive Sr+ after average amount of time, exact
time varies
Fairly steady responding
Example Pop quizzes
Variable Ratio receive Sr+ after average # of correct responses,
exact # varies
Continuous, rapid responding
Example slot machines
 Reinforcement Theory
Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio
400
Cumulative Responses

Fixed Ratio
300
Variable Interval

200 Fixed Interval

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (Minutes)
 Reinforcement Theory
Which Schedules Work Best?
Continuous reinforcement to acquire new skill
Intermittent reinforcement to maintain skill
Ratio better than Interval (more rapid responding)
Variable better than fixed (higher resistance to
extinction)
 Theories of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
Goal Setting Theory based on premise that
people are motivated to reach their goals
Goals help tell how much effort must be exerted
Goals are most motivating when they are:
1. Specific
2. Challenging
3. Accepted
4. Feedback provided
 Goal Setting Theory
Experimental Results
100

90
Percent of possible
performance

80

70
Do your best
60
Specific hard goal
50

40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Blocks of four weeks
From Latham & Baldes (1975), The Practical Significance of Lockes Theory of Goal Setting, Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, p.123
 Job Characteristics Model

Five core job dimensions (Hackman & Oldham)

1. Skill Variety number of different skills required
2. Task Identity completion of task provides a
clearly identified outcome
3. Task Significance job has impact on other
people
4. Autonomy freedom to complete task as one
sees fit
5. Feedback job provides information about
performance
 Job Characteristics Model

Core Job Critical Personal and

Dimensions Psychological Work Outcomes
States

Skill Variety High internal

Task Identity Experienced work motivation
Task Significance meaningfulness of work
High quality work
Experienced performance
Autonomy responsibility for
outcomes of work High satisfaction
with work
Feedback Knowledge of actual
results of work activities Low absenteeism
and turnover
Employee Growth Need Strength
 Job Characteristics Model

Formula to determine motivating potential of job

Skill Task Task
Motivating + +
Variety Identity Significance
Potential Score = x Autonomy x Feedback
(MPS) 3
 Comparison of Motivation Theories
Theory Source of Motivation
Need Theory Unconscious, innate
needs
Equity Theory Drive to reduce feelings of
tension caused by
perceived inequity
Expectancy Relationship among
Theory desired outcomes,
performance-reward, and
effort-performance
variables
Reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement
Theory used to reward people for
their performance
Goal Setting Intention to direct behavior
Theory in pursuit of acceptable
goals
Empirical Support
Weak: Little support for
proposed relationships among
needs
Mixed: Good support for
underpayment inequity, weak
support for overpayment
inequity
Moderate-strong: More
strongly supported in within-
subject (placement) than
between-subject (selection)
experiments
Moderate: Ratio reinforcement
schedules evoke superior
performance compared to
interval schedules, but little
difference exists among
various ratio schedules
Moderate-strong: Performance
under goal-setting conditions
usually superior to conditions
under which no goals are set
Industrial Applicability
Very limited: Theory lacks
sufficient specificity to guide
behavior
Limited: Social comparisons
are made, but feelings of
inequity can be reduced
through means other than
increased motivation
Strong: Theory provides a
rational basis for why people
expend effort, although not all
behavior is as consciously
determined as postulated
Moderate: Contingent
payment for performance is
possible in some jobs,
although ethical problems can
be present in an organizations
attempt to shape employee
behavior
Strong: Ability to set goals is
not restricted to certain types
of people or jobs
 7 Things Needed to Motivate
Employees
1. Ensure workers motives are appropriate for job
2. Make jobs attractive and consistent with workers
motives
3. Define clear, challenging goals (goal setting)
4. Provide necessary resources to do job (opportunity)
5. Create social support systems (respectful environment)
6. Use positive reinforcement for good performance
7. Combine previous 6 into one system

Katzell and Thompson

 The DeMotivational
Series 1 &
Series 2

When you dont care any more