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v1=0 v1 l1=u(0,0) x1
x1
x1
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
N 1 N 1
orthonormality: *
a k ,l (m, n ) a k ',l' (m, n ) (k k ' , l l' ) (4.5)
m 0 n 0
N 1 N 1
completeness: a
k 0 l0
k ,l ( m, n ) a k*,l ( m', n' ) ( m m', n n' ) (4.6)
P 1 Q 1
uP,Q (m,n) a*k,l (m,n) v(k,l), P N,Q N (4.7)
k 0 l 0
N 1 N 1
2e [u(m,n) uP,Q (m,n)] 2 (4.8)
m 0 n 0
e2 0 if PQ N
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
ak ,l ( m, n) ak ( m) b1 ( n) a( k , m) b( l , n) (4.9)
N 1 N 1
v(k,l) a(k,m) u(m,n) a(n, l), or V AUA T (4.11)
m 0 n 0
N 1 N 1
u(m,n) a* (k,m) v(k,l) a* (l, n), or U A*T VA* (4.12)
n 0 l 0
V A M UA N (4.13)
U A*T *T
M VA N (4.14)
N 1 N 1
v v(k) v v u A A u u u u( n ) u
2 2 *T *T *T *T 2 2
(4.16)
k 0 n 0
N 1 N 1
u( m, n) v( k , l )
2 2
(4.17)
m, n 0 k ,l 0
2v ( k ) [R v ]k ,k [AR u A *T ]k ,k (4.20)
W 1 N 1
( k ) v A A u u ( n )
2 *T *T *T 2
v v u (4.21)
k 0 n 0
N 1 N 1
k 0
2
v ( k ) Tr[AR u A *T ] Tr[R u ] 2u ( n )
n 0
(4.22)
E v( k ) E u(n)
N 1 N 1
2 2
(4.23)
k 0 n 0
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
v ( k , l ) a( k , m) a( l , n ) u ( m, n ) (4.24)
m n
m n m' n'
(4.25)
2v ( k , l ) 12 ( k ) 22 ( l ) AR1A *T AR A
k ,k 2
*T
l ,l
where R1r1(m,m') and R2r2(n,n').
Decorrelation
1 3 1 1
v u, where R u ,0 1 ,
2 1 3 1
1 3 / 2 / 2
Rv
/ 2 1 3 / 2
E[v ( 0 ) v (1)] 1 1 1
v ( 0,1) , A
v ( 0 ) v (1) 2 (1
3 2 1/ 2
) 2 1 1
4
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Imagine originala
V(1,3) V(1,5) V(1,7) V(1,9)
= + + +
where:
2
WN exp j (4.29)
N
N 1
1
v(k)
N
u(n) W
n 0
N
kn
, k = 0,1,...N - 1 (4.31)
N 1
1
u(n)
N
v(k) W
k 0
kn
N , n 0,1,...N 1 (4.32)
1
F WNkn , 0 k,n N 1 (4.33)
N
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
DFT properties
N 1 N 1
v* (N k) u* (n) WN(N k)n u(n) WNkn v(k) (4.34)
n 0 n 0
N N N
v k v * k , k 0,..., 1 (4.35)
2 2 2
N N
v k v k (4.36)
2 2
N 1 N 1
v(k,l) u(m,n) WNkm WNln , 0 k,l N 1 (4.38)
m 0 n 0
N 1 N 1
1
u(m,n)
N2
W
k 0 l 0
km
N WN ln v(k,l) , 0 m,n N 1 (4.39)
1 N 1 N 1 km ln
v(k,l) WN WN u (m, n ) , 0 k,l N 1 (4.40)
N m0 n 0
N 1 N 1
1
u(m,n)
N
v(k,l) W
k 0 l 0
km
N WN ln v(k,l), 0 m,n N 1 (4.41)
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Symmetry: F T F , F 1 F * (4.42)
Periodicity:
v(k N, l N) v(k, l)k, l (4.43)
u( m N , n N ) u( m, n ) m, n (4.44)
~
where U ( w1 , w2 ) is the Fourier transform of u(m,n).
Fast Fourier transform (FFT): since 2-D DFT is separable => equations (4.40)
and (4.41) are equivalent to 2N 1-D DFTs; each of them can be
computed in Nlog2N operations through FFT.
=> The total number of operations for 2-D DFT: N2log2N.
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Conjugate symmetry: the 2-D DFT and unitary 2-D DFT of a real image
exhibit conjugate symmetry:
N N N N N
v k, l v * k, l , 0 k,l 1 (4.46)
2 2 2 2 2
l
1 (N/2 -1) N/2 N-1
0
(N/2)-1
N/2
N-1
N/2
Fig. 4.2 The conjugate symmetry of the 2-D DFT coefficients
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
FDCT:
N 1 N 1 (2m 1)k (2n 1)l
v(k,l) (k) (l) u(m,n) cos cos 2N (4.47)
m 0 n 0 2N
1 2
(0) and (k) for 1 k N (4.49)
N N
V CuCT (4.50)
(2m 1)k
c k,m (k) cos (4.51)
2N
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
2 N 1 N 1 (m 1)(k 1) (n 1)(l 1)
v(k,l)
N 1 m 0 n 0
u(m,n) sin
N 1 sin N 1 (4.52)
2 N 1 N 1 (m 1)(k 1) (n 1)(l 1)
u(m,n)
N 1 k 0 l 0
v(k,l) sin
N 1 sin N 1 (4.53)
2 (m 1)(k 1)
sm,k sin (4.54)
N 1 N 1
2
N 1 N 1
1
v(k,l)
N
u(m,n)cas N
m 0 n 0
(mk nl)
(4.55)
2
N 1 N 1
1
u( m, n )
N
v(k,l)cas N
k 0 l 0
(mk nl)
(4.56)
1 mk
hm,k cas 2 N (4.58)
N
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
1 1 1
H2 (4.59)
2 1 1
1 H N / 2 HN / 2
HN (4.60)
2 H N / 2 H N / 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1
1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4
H8 (4. 61) 1 1 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 - 1 3
2 21 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 H 8,ord (4. 62)
2 21 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 1 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1 - 1 5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2
1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5
1 1 1 - 1 1 - 1 1 1 7
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
1 0 1 0 S n 1 0
a b 0 0
n n an bn
1 0 I n-1 0 I n -1
(4.64)
Sn
2 0 1 0 1
0 0
bn an bn an
0 I n -1 0
I n -1 0 S n 1
3N 2 N2 1
an 1 and bn 1 (4.65)
4N 2 1 4N 2 1
The Haar transform
k 2p q 1 (4.66)
p/2 q 1 q 1/2
2 , if 2 p x 2 p
h0 (x)
1
and 1
p/2 q 1/2 q (4.67)
hk (x) 2 , if p
x p
N N 2 2
0, otherwise
x i / N, i=0,1,...,N-1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0
2 (4.68)
1 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2
Hr
8 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
Applying the Haar transform at block level (e.g. 22 pixels blocks => Hr[22]):
Block Rearrange
transform: coefficients:
Applying the Haar transform at block level for a 44 pixels blocks => Hr[44]:
Rearrange
Block coefficients:
transform:
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
A k 0 (4.69)
Av k k v k (4.70)
1 L
mx xl
L l 1
(4.71)
C x E ( x m x )( x m x )T 1 L
L l 1
x l x tl m x m tx (4.72)
y A (x m x ) (4.73)
C y ACx AT (4.74)
1 0
Cy (4.75)
0 N
x A 1 y m x A T y m x (4.76)
~
y Bx (4.77)
~
x BT ~
y (4.78)
N
2e
k M 1
k (4.79)
Digital image processing Digital image transforms
0 1 2 1 0 6 14 18 14 6 147,07
1 1 14
3 4 3
36 48 36 14 1,872
A 2 4 5 4 2 AA T 18 48 65 48 18 ; 0,058
1 3 4 3 1 14 36 48 36 14 0
0 1 2 1 0 6 14 18 14 6 0
12,58 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0
0 1
1,142 0 0 0
3 4 3 1
U AU 0
T
0 0,557 0 0 A U UT 2 4 6 4 2
0 0 0 0 0 1 3 4 3 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0
KLT (PCA)
Eigenimages examples:
Facial
image
set
Corresponding
eigenfaces
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Image Its Haar transform
DFT
Original image = (white square, grey background) DFT = sinc 2-D for the square + cst. (for noise)
+ aditive noise LPF 2-D
IDFT
The 2-D spectrum of the image and the filters applied:
Noisy image; periodic noise as vertical lines In the regions corresponding to the vertical lines frequencies
4.8 CONCLUSIONS
DFT
- Fast transform; very useful in digital signal processing, convolution, filtering, image
analysis
- Good energy compaction; however requires complex computations
DCT
- Fast transform and requires only real number operations
- The optimal alternative to the KLT for highly correlated images
- Used in compression and image restoration by Wiener filtering
- Excellent energy compaction
Hadamard
- Faster than sinusoidal transforms since it only implies sums and subtractions
- Used for hardware implementation of some digital image processing algorithms
- Applied in image compression, filtering, coding
- Good energy compaction
Haar
- Very fast transform
- Useful for feature extraction (like horizontal or vertical lines), image coding, image
analysis
- Average energy compaction performance
KLT
- Optimal transform as: energy compaction; decorrelation
- Does not have a fast algorithm
- Generally used for small sized vectors and to evaluate the performances of other
transforms, but also for image analysis and recognition (PCA)