The Tissue Level of Organization

An Introduction to Tissues

Tissues
Structures with discrete structural and functional properties
Tissues in combination form organs, such as the heart or liver
Are collections of cells and cell products that perform specific, limited
functions
Four types of tissue
1. Epithelial tissue
2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Neural tissue
Four Types of Tissue

Epithelial Tissue
Covers exposed surfaces
Lines internal passageways
Forms glands

Connective Tissue
Fills internal spaces
Supports other tissues
Transports materials
Stores energy
4-1 Four Types of Tissue

Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction
Skeletal muscle
Heart muscle
walls of hollow organs

Neural Tissue
Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelia
Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces
Glands
Structures that produce secretions
Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity (cell junctions)
Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
Attachment (basement membrane or basal lamina)
Avascularity
Regeneration
Specializations of Epithelial Cells
1. Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
2. Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
3. Produce secretions (protection and messengers)
Apical surfaces
Microvilli increase
absorption or secretion
Cilia (ciliated epithelium)
move fluid

Basolateral surfaces
Clear layer (lamina lucida)
Thin layer, secreted by
epithelia. Barrier to proteins
Dense layer (lamina densa).
Thick fibers, produced by
connective tissue. Strength
and filtration
Epithelial Tissue

Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia

1. Intercellular connections
2. Attachment to the basement membrane
3. Epithelial maintenance and repair
Intercellular Connections
Support and communication
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules)
Transmembrane proteins
Intercellular cement
Proteoglycans
Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid)
Glycosaminoglycans
 Epithelial Tissue
Intercellular Connections
Cell junctions
Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material
1. Tight junctions
Between two plasma membranes
Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
Prevents passage of water and solutes
2. Gap junctions
Allow rapid communication
Are held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons)
Allow ions to pass
Coordinate contractions in heart muscle
3. Desmosomes
Spot desmosomes: Tie cells together, Allow bending and twisting
Hemidesmosomes: Attach cells to the basal lamina
 Interlocking
junctional
proteins
Tight junction

Tight junction

Adhesion belt

Terminal web

Spot
desmosome Adhesion belt

Gap
junctions

Hemidesmosome

Embedded proteins
(connexons)

Intermediate
filaments
Clear
layer
Basement
Dense membrane
layer

Dense area

Cell adhesion
molecules (CAMs)
Proteoglycans
 Tight junction

Adhesion belt

Terminal web

Spot
desmosome

Gap
junctions

Hemidesmosome

This is a diagrammatic view of an epithelial cell,

showing the major types of intercellular
connections.
Interlocking
junctional
proteins
Tight junction

Terminal web

Adhesion belt

A tight junction is formed by the fusion of

the outer layers of two plasma
membranes. Tight junctions prevent the
diffusion of fluids and solutes between
the cells. A continuous adhesion belt lies
deep to the tight junction. This belt is tied
to the microfilaments of the terminal web.
Embedded proteins
(connexons)

Gap junctions permit the

free diffusion of ions and
small molecules between
two cells.
Intermediate
filaments
Cell adhesion
molecules (CAMs)

Dense area

Proteoglycans

A spot desmosome ties

adjacent cells together.
 Clear
layer
Basement
Dense membrane
layer

Hemidesmosomes attach a
cell to extracellular structures,
such as the protein fibers in
the basement membrane.
Classification of Epithelia: Form fits Function
Classes of Epithelia
1. Based on shape
Squamous epithelia thin and flat
Cuboidal epithelia square shaped
Columnar epithelia tall, slender rectangles
2. Based on layers
Simple epithelium single layer of cells
Stratified epithelium several layers of cells
Classification of Epithelia
Squamous Epithelia
Simple squamous epithelium: Absorption and diffusion
Mesothelium: Lines body cavities
Endothelium: Lines heart and blood vessels
Classification of Epithelia

Squamous Epithelia
Stratified squamous epithelium
Protects against attacks
Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance
Classification of Epithelia
Cuboidal Epithelia
Simple cuboidal epithelium: Secretion and absorption
Stratified cuboidal epithelia: Sweat ducts and mammary ducts
Classification of Epithelia

Transitional Epithelium
Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its
previous shape without damage
Appearance changes as stretching occurs
Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g., urinary bladder)
 Columnar Epithelia
Simple columnar
epithelium:
Absorption and
secretion

Pseudostratified
columnar epithelium:
Cilia movement

Stratified columnar
epithelium: Protection
Classification of Epithelia
Glandular Epithelia
Endocrine glands
Release hormones into interstitial fluid, which then enters circulation
No ducts
Exocrine glands
Produce secretions and enters ducts
 Merocrine Secretion
Produced in Golgi apparatus
Released by vesicles (exocytosis)
For example, sweat glands
 Apocrine Secretion
Produced in Golgi apparatus
Released by shedding cytoplasm
For example, mammary glands
 Holocrine Secretion
Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
Gland cells replaced by stem cells
For example, sebaceous glands
 COMPOUND GLANDS

COMPOUND COMPOUND ALVEOLAR COMPOUND

TUBULAR (ACINAR) TUBULOALVEOLAR
Examples: Examples: Examples:
Mucous glands (in mouth)
Mammary glands Salivary glands
Bulbo-urethral glands (in
male reproductive system) Glands of respiratory
Testes (seminiferous passages
tubules) Pancreas
Connective Tissue

Tissue whose cells create a matrix that embed the cell.

Functions of Connective Tissue
Establishing a structural framework for the body
Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
Protecting delicate organs
Supporting, surrounding, and interconnecting other types of tissue
Storing energy reserves, especially in the form of triglycerides
Defending the body from invading microorganisms
Basically HOLD EVERYTHING TOGETHER
Connective Tissue: Cells

Fibroblasts
The most abundant cell type
Secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)
Fibrocytes
The second most abundant cell type
Maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper
Adipocytes (fat cells)
Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet
Mesenchymal Cells
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection
Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.
Melanocytes
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
Connective Tissue: Fibers
Collagen Fibers: Long, straight, and unbranched
Strong and flexible
Resist force in one direction
For example, tendons and ligaments
Reticular Fibers: Network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
Strong and flexible
Resist force in many directions
Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and structures
For example, sheaths around organs
Elastic Fibers: Branched and wavy
Contain elastin
Return to original length after stretching
For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae
Ground Substance
Is clear, colorless, and viscous
Fills spaces between cells and slows pathogen movement
 Reticular
fibers Mast cell
Melanocyte
Elastic
Fixed fibers
macrophage

Plasma cell Free

macrophage

Collagen
fibers
Blood Fibroblast
in vessel

Adipocytes
(fat cells)
Mesenchymal
cell
Ground Lymphocyte
substance
 Elastic
fibers

Collagen
fibers
Fibroblast

Free
macrophage

Connective tissue proper LM 502

 White fat Brown fat
Most common More vascularized
Stores fat Adipocytes have many
Absorbs shocks mitochondria
Slows heat loss (insulation)
When stimulated by nervous
system, fat breakdown accelerates,
**Adipose cells releasing energy
Adipocytes in adults do not
divide Absorbs energy from surrounding
Expand to store fat tissues
Shrink as fats are released
 Reticular Tissue
Provides support
Complex, three-dimensional network
Supportive fibers (stroma)
Support functional cells (parenchyma)
Reticular organs
Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
Tendons attach muscles to bones
Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize organs
Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat muscles
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Interwoven networks of collagen fibers
Layered in skin
Around cartilages (perichondrium)
Around bones (periosteum)
Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver, kidneys)
 Elastic Tissue
Made of elastic fibers
For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae
Connective Tissue

Fluid Connective Tissues

Blood and lymph
Watery matrix of dissolved proteins
Carry specific cell types (formed elements)
Formed elements of blood
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Platelets
Extracellular
Plasma
Interstitial fluid
Lymph
Supporting Connective Tissues

Support Soft Tissues and Body Weight

Cartilage
Gel-type ground substance
For shock absorption and protection
Bone
Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
For weight support
Cartilage Matrix
Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
Ground substance proteins
Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by lacunae
(chambers)
 Hyaline Cartilage
Stiff, flexible support
Reduces friction between bones
Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and
trachea
 Elastic Cartilage
Supportive but bends easily
Found in external ear and epiglottis
 Fibrocartilage (Fibrous Cartilage)
Limits movement
Prevents bone-to-bone contact
Pads knee joints
Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs
Supporting Connective Tissues
Bone or Osseous Tissue
Strong (calcified calcium salt deposits)
Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
Bone Cells or Osteocytes
Arranged around central canals within matrix
Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply
Periosteum
Covers bone surfaces
Fibrous layer
Cellular layer
Membranes

Physical barriers
Line or cover portions of the body
Consist of:
An epithelium
Supported by connective tissue

Four Types of Membranes

1. Mucous membranes
2. Serous membranes
3. Cutaneous membrane
4. Synovial membranes
Membranes

Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)

Line passageways that have external connections
In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
Epithelial surfaces must be moist
To reduce friction
To facilitate absorption and excretion
Lamina propria
Is areolar tissue
Membranes

Serous Membranes
Line cavities not open to the outside
Are thin but strong
Have fluid transudate to reduce friction
Have a parietal portion covering the cavity
Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the organs
4-6 Membranes

Three Serous Membranes

1. Pleura
Lines pleural cavities
Covers lungs
2. Peritoneum
Lines peritoneal cavity
Covers abdominal organs
3. Pericardium
Lines pericardial cavity
Covers heart
Membranes

Cutaneous Membrane
Is skin, surface of the body
Thick, waterproof, and dry
Synovial Membranes
Line moving, articulating joint cavities
Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
Protect the ends of bones
Lack a true epithelium
Internal Framework of the Body

Connective Tissues
1. Provide strength and stability
2. Maintain positions of internal organs
3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
Fasciae
Singular form = fascia
The bodys framework of connective tissue
Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs
Three Types of Fasciae
1. Superficial fascia
2. Deep fascia
3. Subserous fascia
Body wall Connective Tissue Framework of Body

Body cavity Superficial Fascia

Between skin and
underlying organs
Areolar tissue and
adipose tissue
Also known as
subcutaneous layer
or hypodermis
Skin
Deep Fascia
Forms a strong, fibrous
internal framework
Dense connective tissue
Bound to capsules,
tendons, and ligaments

Subserous Fascia
Between serous
membranes and
deep fascia
Areolar tissue
Rib

Serous membrane
Cutaneous membrane
Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction
Produces all body movement
Three types of muscle tissue
1. Skeletal muscle tissue
Large body muscles responsible for movement
2. Cardiac muscle tissue
Found only in the heart
3. Smooth muscle tissue
Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels;
urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts)
Muscle Tissue

Classification of Muscle Cells

Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance)
Nonstriated (not banded; smooth)
Muscle cells can have a single nucleus
Muscle cells can be multinucleate
Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously)
Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily (automatically)
Muscle Tissue

Skeletal Muscle Cells

Long and thin
Usually called muscle fibers
Do not divide
New fibers are produced by stem cells (myosatellite cells)
 Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, branched, Nucleus

and striated, usually with a
single nucleus; cells are Cardiac
interconnected by muscle
intercalated discs. cells
LOCATION: Heart
FUNCTIONS: Intercalated
Circulates blood; discs
maintains blood
(hydrostatic) pressure
Striations

LM 450
Cardiac muscle

Cardiac Muscle Cells

Called cardiocytes
Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs
Regulated by pacemaker cells
Smooth Muscle Tissue

Cells are short, spindle-shaped, and

nonstriated, with a single, central
nucleus.
LOCATIONS: Found in
the walls of blood vessels Nucleus
and in digestive, respiratory,
urinary, and reproductive organs
FUNCTIONS: Moves food,
urine, and reproductive tract
Smooth
secretions; controls
muscle
diameter of respiratory
cell
passageways; regulates
diameter of blood vessels
LM 235
Smooth muscle

Smooth Muscle Cells

Small and tapered
Can divide and regenerate
Neural Tissue

Neural Tissue
Also called nervous or nerve tissue
Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
Rapidly senses internal or external environment
Processes information and controls responses
Neural tissue is concentrated in the central nervous system
Brain
Spinal cord
Two Types of Neural Cells
1. Neurons
Nerve cells
Perform electrical communication
2. Neuroglia
Supporting cells
Repair and supply nutrients to neurons
Neural Tissue
Cell Parts of a Neuron
Cell body
Contains the nucleus and
nucleolus
Dendrites
Short branches extending
from the cell body
Receive incoming signals
Axon (nerve fiber)
Long, thin extension of the
cell body
Carries outgoing electrical
signals to their destination
 NEUROGLIA (supporting cells)

Maintain physical structure

of tissues
Repair tissue framework
after injury
Perform phagocytosis
Provide nutrients to neurons
Regulate the composition of the
interstitial fluid surrounding neurons