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Environmental
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Decision Making and Problem
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Part 1: Foundations of
Environmental Science

PowerPoint Slides prepared by

Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008
Copyright Pearson
2008 Education,
Pearson Inc.,Inc.,
Education, publishing as Benjamin
publishing as PearsonCummings
Benjamin Cummings
 This lecture will help you understand:

Environmental policies
Major U.S.
environmental laws
International
environmental policy
The environmental
policy process
Different approaches to
environmental policy

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 San Diego and Tijuana

The Tijuana River empties into the Pacific Ocean, carrying

millions of gallons of untreated wastewater

San Diegos waters receive storm water runoff

Beaches are off-limits to swimming
Rains wash pollutants onto U.S. and Mexican beaches, but
things are worse on the Mexican side

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Environmental policy

Policy = a formal set of general plans and principles to

address problems and guide decisions
Public Policy = policy made by governments that
consists of laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and
practices
Environmental Policy = pertains to human interactions
with the environment
Regulates resource use or reduce pollution

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Environmental policy and resource use
Policies include science, ethics, and economics
Market failure = businesses or individuals dont
minimize environmental impact
Justification for government intervention
The tragedy of the commons = we must develop
guidelines for commonly held resources
Restrict use and actively manage resources
Some traditional societies safeguard against
exploitation
The threat of overexploitation is a driving force
behind much environmental policy

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Environmental policy and equity

Free Riders = reducing pollution

tempts any one person to cheat
Private voluntary efforts are
less effective than mandated
efforts
External Cost = harmful impacts
result from market transaction but
are borne by people not involved
in the transaction
Environmental policy goals = protect resources against the
tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating
free riders and addressing external costs

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Why are environmental laws unpopular?

Environmental laws are challenged, derided, and ignored

Environmental policy involves government regulations
Businesses and individuals view laws as overly
restrictive and unresponsive to human needs
Most environmental problems are long-term processes
Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs
News media have short attention spans
Politicians act out of their own short-term interest

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 Framework of U.S. policy
Results from actions of the three branches of government
Legislative branch = creates statutory law

Executive branch = enacts or vetoes legislation

- Issues executive orders
Judicial branch = interprets laws
Administrative agencies = the fourth branch
- Established by the president or Congress
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 State and local policies affect
environmental issues
Important environmental policy is also created at
the state and local levels
State laws cannot violate principles of the U.S.
Constitution,
If laws conflict, federal laws take precedence
California, New York, and Massachusetts have
strong environmental laws
The interior western states put less priority on
environmental protection and favor unregulated
development

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Constitutional amendments and
environmental law
Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
Prohibits denying equal protection of its laws
Its the Constitutional basis for the
environmental justice movement
Fifth Amendment = takings clause
Bans the literal taking of private property
Also bans regulatory take, which deprives a
property owner of economic uses of the
property
There is a sensitive balance between private rights
and the public good
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Early U.S. environmental policy
Involved management of
public lands, 1780s to the late
1800s
Promoted settlement
Extraction of natural
resources
Increased prosperity
Relieved crowding in Eastern
cities
Displaced millions of Native
Americans
People believed that land was
infinite and inexhaustible

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 The second wave of U.S. policy

Addressed impacts caused by the first wave

Public perception and government policy shifted
Mitigated environmental problems associated
with westward expansion
Yellowstone National Park, the worlds first
national park, opened in 1872
Other protected areas were created
National wildlife refuges, parks, and forests
Reflected a new understanding that the Wests
resources were exhaustible and required legal
protection
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The third wave of U.S. environmental policy

Mid-to late-20th century

Better off economically
But dirtier air, dirtier water, and
more waste and toxic chemicals
Increased awareness of environmental
problems shifted public priorities and
policy
1962: Silent Spring (by Rachel
Carson) described the negative
ecological and health effects of
pesticides and industrial chemicals

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Modern U.S. environmental policy
The Cuyahoga River was
polluted with oil and
industrial waste
It caught fire in the 1950s
and 1960s
Today, public enthusiasm for
environmental protection
remains strong
The majority of Americans
favor environmental
protection
In April, millions of people
celebrate Earth Day
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA)
1970 began the modern era of environmental policy

Created the Council on Environmental Quality

- Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for
any federal action that might impact the environment
NEPA forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental
impacts of a project
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The EPA shifts environmental policy

Nixon created the Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA)
Conducts and evaluates research
Monitors environmental quality
Sets and enforces standards for pollution levels
Assists states in meeting standards and goals
Educates the public

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Significant environmental laws

The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported

tougher environmental legislation

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The social context for policy can change

Three factors converged to allow major advances in

environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s
Wide evidence of environmental problems
People could visualize policies to deal with problems
The political climate was ripe, with a supportive public
and leaders who were willing to act
In recent years, the political climate has changed
People felt burdened by environmental regulations
Attempts have been made to roll back or weaken
environmental laws

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Future environmental policies

Will depend on having the American environmental

movement reinvent its approach
It needs to appeal to peoples core values
Start showing why these problems are actually human
issues and affect our quality life
Future policies need to articulate a positive, inspiring
vision for the future
Currently, the United States has retreated from its
leadership
Other nations have increased their attention to
environmental issues

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 The Earth Summit

Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, in 2002

The largest international diplomatic conference ever held

It centered on the idea of sustainable development
This fourth wave of environmental policy focuses on
sustainable development
Finding ways to safeguard natural systems while
raising living standards for the worlds poorest people

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 International Environmental Policy
International issues can be
addressed through creative
agreements
Customary law = practices or
customs held by most cultures
Conventional law = from
conventions or treaties
Montreal Protocol: nations
agreed to reduce ozone- An international
depleting chemicals wastewater treatment
plant
Kyoto Protocol: reduces fossil
fuel emissions causing
climate change

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Organizations help shape international
policy
International organizations influence the behavior
of nations
Providing funding, applying peer pressure,
directing media attention
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) = helps nations understand and solve
environmental problems
The European Union seeks to promote Europes
unity and economic and social progress
Can enact binding regulations
Can also issue advisory directives
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The World Trade Organization (WTO)
Represents multinational corporations to promote free
trade
Has authority to impose penalties on nations the dont
comply with its directives
Interprets some environmental laws as unfair barriers
to free trade
Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against the
U.S. EPAs regulations requiring cleaner-burning
fuel
The WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela,
despite threats to human health
Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental
problems
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
NGOs and the World Bank

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) =

entities that influence international policy
Some do not get politically involved
Others try to shape policy through
research, lobbying or protest
The World Bank = one of the worlds largest
funding sources for development
Dams, irrigation, infrastructure
Funds unsustainable, environmentally
damaging projects

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Six steps to making environmental policy

Requires curiosity, observation, awareness

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 Step 2

Involves scientific research and

Risk assessment = judging risks a problem poses
to health or the environment

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 Step 3

Risk management = developing strategies to

minimize risk
Involves social or political action

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 Step 4

Organizations are more effective than individuals

But a motivated, informed individual can also
succeed
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Step 5

Lobbying = spending time and money to influence a politician

Environmental advocates are not the most influential
lobbyists
Political Action Committees (PACs) = raise money for political
campaigns
The revolving door = the movement of people between the
private sector and government
Intimate knowledge of an issue or conflict of interest?
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
 Step 6

Prepare a bill, or draft law, containing solutions

Following a laws enactment
Administrative agencies implement regulations
Policymakers evaluate the policys successes or failures
The judicial branch interprets the law
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Science plays a role, but can be politicized

Effective policy decisions are informed by

scientific research
Sometimes policymakers ignore science
They let political ideology determine policy
Scientists at government agencies have had
their work suppressed or discredited
- Their jobs were threatened

When taxpayer-funded research is suppressed or distorted

for political ends, everyone loses
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Approaches to environmental policy

Command-and-control approach: environmental

policy sets rules or limits and threatens
punishment for violators
Heavy-handed
Alternative approaches involve using economic
incentives to encourage desired outcomes and
use market dynamics to meet goals
Most current environmental laws
- Have resulted in safe, healthy, comfortable
lives

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Drawbacks of command-and-control

Government actions may be well-intentioned but not

informed
Interest groupspeople seeking private gainunduly
influence politicians
Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom
Costly and less efficient in achieving goals

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Widespread economic policy tools

Tax breaks = encourage desirable

industries or activities
Subsidy = a government giveaway
of cash or resources to encourage a
particular activity
Have been used to support
unsustainable activities

In 2003, $58 billion of taxpayers money was spent on 68

environmentally harmful subsidies such as building logging roads
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Another economic policy tool

Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful

activities
Polluter pays principle = the price of a good or service
includes all costs, including environmental degradation
Gives companies financial incentives to reduce
pollution
But, costs are passed on to consumers

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 Market permitting and incentives
Permit trading = government-created market in
permits
Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits
Emissions trading system = government-issued
permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and
companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with
other polluters
Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its
pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties
- Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase
around polluting plants
Companies have an economic incentive to reduce
emissions
Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Conclusion

Environmental policy is a problem-solving tool

Uses science, ethics and economics
Conventional command-and-control approach
Uses legislation and regulations
Most common approach
Market-based incentives
Can be more complicated but can be less
expensive

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review

_______ is defined as laws and regulations made by

government.

a) Tort law
b) Public policy
c) Market failure
d) Tragedy of the commons

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following is NOT a goal of environmental
policy?
a) Increased resource extraction
b) Elimination of free riders
c) Addressing external costs
d) Promoting equity

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review

What happened to the Cuyahoga River to increase

awareness of environmental problems?
a) It smelled bad
b) People drowned in it
c) It was drained
d) It caught on fire

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review

NEPA requires an Environmental Impact Statement when:

a) An economically expensive project is proposed
b) Any state action may affect the environment
c) Any federal action may affect the environment
d) Politicians decide one is needed

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review

External costs are:

a) Defined when a person cheats on cleaning up
pollution
b) Borne by people involved in a transaction
c) Voluntary efforts to decrease environmental
impacts
d) Borne by people not involved in a transaction

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following entities tries to shape policy through
research, lobbying, or protest?

a) NGOs
b) The EU
c) The World Bank
d) The WTO

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
What major conclusion can be drawn from this graph on emissions
trading of sulfur dioxide.

a) Emissions have greatly

increased since 2000
b) Emissions have
decreased since 2000,
but are above permitted
levels
c) The U.S. no longer emits
sulfur dioxide
d) Permitted levels have
been lowered since 2000

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Should the government be able to prevent development
in an environmentally sensitive area, even if that
area is privately owned?

a) Yes, if the public good is threatened

b) Yes, if the landowner agrees
c) Yes, but only if the courts allow it
d) No, private property development should never be
prevented by government

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

QUESTION: Viewpoints
If one nation has strict environmental laws, should
another nation be allowed to sue to overrule those
laws in the name of free trade?

a) Yes, free trade must not be interrupted between

two countries that have trade agreements
b) Yes, but only if the negatively affected country is
poor and trying to develop
c) No, countries have the right to pass
environmental protection laws that other nations
must follow

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings