BASIC STATISTICS

BY K.MASAN
Manager Quality Assurance
 BASIC STATISTICS
No two units of products by any manufacturing process
are identical.
Every single process is subject to some degree of
variation which is evidenced in the final products.
Those are weight, wall thickness, OD of the container,
ID of the Container etc.,

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 BASIC STATISTICS
VARIATION IS INEVITABLE
Variations are Two Types,
1. Common causes
2. Special Causes

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 Common & Special Causes
Common Causes: One defined as the cumulative effect of
events or sources which are regular and inherent in the
process. Therefore found in all output of the process
Special Causes: Something change in the process (effect).
Like ambient temperature.

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 Effectiveness of Variations
If variation not treated properly or at all, its lead negative
consequences such as,
1. Low equipment Efficiencies.
2. Difficulties managing and controlling process.
3.Poor quality Products
4.Waste of time and money
5.Loss of sales or market share due to weakened
reputation.

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 Measure the Variation
We can measure the variation and model it statistically for both
process and products. As follows,
1. Knowing a process well and understanding its variability.
2. Developing plans of action to treat problems methodically.
3. Developing maintenance, quality control and process control
procedures
4. Using statistical tools to monitor process (ie. Histograms,
paretos, Control charts etc).

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 HISTOGRAMS
HISTOGRAMS
It is Bar type chart
It is allows us to display the data in a graphical way.
It is provides visual representation of the data, with which it
is easier to note three properties, as follows,

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 Properties of Histograms
1. Shape, Distribution, form of the variation of the data
points.

Central Tendency or accumulation which of the data

points or observation occur most.

3. Scatter, spread or distribution which data represent

the lowest values and which ones the highest.

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 Construct the Histograms
On X axis, the values of the variable measurement are
organized by order of magnitude (Small to Large), from left
to right.

The Y axis considers the frequency or number of

observation relative to the variable or characteristic noted.

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 EXAMPLE
Weight of the Containers (pails)

600.4 599.7 601.4 599.9

599.6 600.9 600.1 601.3
600.4 600.6 599.3 600.5
It is a Bar graph that shows the data grouped and organized in
601.1 598.6 602.7 600.2
order to be able to statically analyze the distribution of a
process.

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 Tips
The intervals should have uniform amplitude.

All data points must be accounted for.

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 Samples Vs Population
These 16 points is called sample, since it only considers a
small group or subgroup of the total number of weights
measurement for 600 grams plastics pails.

If we have total number of possible data points is used, it is

called Population or Universe.

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 Dispersion of a Population

Dispersion of sample of 5 data points from a

population

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 Types of Histograms & Normal
Distribution
Histograms do not always have the same shape or form.

THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

It is probably the most important distribution in both the theory
and application of statistics.
It is also known as Bell Curve because its shape or as a Guassion
Distribution.
Gaussion is a Mathematician that discovered its benefits while
applying it to astronomical observation

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 Characteristic of Distribution
Three elements characteristics of a Distribution,

1. Its Form

2. Its Central Tendency

3. Its Dispersion

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 Normal (Gaussian) Distribution

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 FORM
Form: Represent the profile or shape that describes the
accumulation of data.
Normal Distribution profile is Symmetrical.
Majority of the points near the center and only few
situated out in the extremes, which are results of the
accumulation of multiple small errors due to variation.

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 Central Tendency
Define the location of the observation

It is three types,
1. Mean

2. Median

3. Mode

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 MEAN X
MEAN: Average of the measurement. It is the sum of all of
the individual data points divided by the total number of
the data points,
Sample : Mean = X

Population: represented by m.

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 MEAN
EXAMPLE

Mean = X = [92+85+87+72]/4 = 84

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 Advantages of MEAN
Relatively Easy to understand and Calculate.

Always Exists

It is Unique

Reflects all the values in a given sample.

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 MEDIAN
It is the data point or number that divides all the data
points into two equal halves.

The median is the number that falls in the CENTER after

organizing the data points in ASSENDING ORDER.

The median is not affecting by extreme Values.

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 MEDIAN EXAMPLE
Ex :1
1,3,5,7,9 = 5

Ex : 2
1,1,1,3,3,6,8 = 3

Ex : 3
2,4,6,8 = (4+6)/2 = 5

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 MODE
It is the value that repeats or appears the MOST.

Possible to have multiple Modes.

Not affected by extreme values.

IN NORMAIL DISTRIBUTION Mean, Median, Mode

fall in the same place.

(not all the distribution are normal Distribution)

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 MODE Examples
Ex :1
1,4,2,5,4 = 4
Ex :2
1,4,2,5,2,4 = 2 & 4
Ex :3
1,4,2,5,4,1,5,2 = No Mode
Ex: 4
2,4,3,6,7,1 = No Mode

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 DISPERSION
Different ways to express the dispersion or
Variability of a Sample

1. Range

2.Variance

3.Standard Deviation

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 DISPERSION
Range: First measurement of dispersion is called the range.

Range : Max Min (Always Positive)

Range = 2.83,2.84,2.82,2.89,2.90
=2.90 2.82
=0.08

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 RANGE
Since the range is calculated using only two data points or
observations, the range can be deceiving (misleading).

The range is a measurement of dispersion of data, but ignores

the all but the two extreme data points.

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 VARIANCE
One way to take in to account all of the data points is by
subtracting from each data point from the Mean X, of all the
data points.

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VARIANCE
Sample Xi (Xi-X)

1 601.772 0.216

2 601.517 -0.039

3 601.552 -0.003

4 600.158 -1.398

5 601.114 -0.442

6 600.995 -0.560

7 602.538 0.982

8 600.801 -0.755

9 601.869 0.313

10 603.241 1.685

Average 601.56 00

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 VARIANCE
The average is zero since the + values are cancelled by -
signs.
To overcome this issue, such that data is not affected by
mathematical signs, we squared the (Xi-X) value.

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VARIANCE
(Xi-X)2
0.047

0.002

0.000 s2
1.953

0.195

0.314

0.965

0.570

0.098

2.840

s2 = [0.047 + 0.002 + 0 + 1.953 + 0.195 + 0.314 + 0.965 + 0.570 + 0.098 + 2.840] / 10

= 0.699

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 Variance
Sample Variance

-1

s2est = [0.047 + 0.002 + 0 + 1.953 + 0.195 + 0.314 + 0.965 + 0.570 +

0.098 + 2.840] / 9 = 0.776

The larger the variance, the greater

the dispersion or variation in the
sample data.

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 Standard Deviation
The total standard deviation takes into account all of the
data points values and in cases where a sample is
considered, it is calculated by the formula.

= sest
s

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 Standard Deviation
The larger standard deviation, the greater the dispersion.
The standard deviation does not reflect the magnitude of
the sample data points, rather it reflects their dispersion
around the mean.
The std deviation may be used to describe how much of a
population falls within two values of distribution.

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 Standard Deviation

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 Within plus of minus one standard deviation from the mean
(sigma), one can count on finding 68.26% of the data points.
Within Plus or Minus two 95.46% and within Plus or Minus
Three is 99.73 %

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 STANDARD DEVIATON
Sample Std, deviation,

= sest
Sest

We can find sigma in a more simple, but less precise way

STotal = Range/d2.
Where d2 is a Heartley Constant.

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