PHOENIX

Gas Detection Basics For

Combustibles, Toxics
and Oxygen
 PHOENIX

The Purpose of Gas Detection

Safeguard Life and Property.

Provide Early Warning of gas leak.
Provide Opportunity for Evacuation.
Provide Time for Intervention and Correction.
Shut down and Activate Facility Protection
Systems.
Satisfy Local Fire Code and Provide
Insurability.
 PHOENIX
Monitoring Flammable Gases and
Vapors

Flammable Gases are Lighter or Heavier than air.

Flammable Liquid Vapors are All Heavier than Air.
Flammable Liquids Vaporize at a Rate Determined
by Their Vapor Pressure & Temp.
Flammable Liquids are those with a Flash Point
Below 200o F.
The Flash Point is the Lowest Temperature at which
the Vapor Pressure of the Liquid will produce a
Flammable Mixture.
 PHOENIX

The Combustion Triangle

The Three Requirements for Combustion
Are:
1) Fuel 2) Oxygen 3) Ignition Source

Fuel

COMBUSTION
Ignition
Oxygen Source
 PHOENIX

Ignition Sources
Sources of Ignition in Chemical Plant fires
Open Flame such as Heater, Furnace . . .24%
Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15%
Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11%
Autoignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11%
Internal Combustion Engine . . . . . . . . . . .9%
Lightning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7%
Hot Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7%
All Other (Arson, Electrostatic, Welding) . 16%
 PHOENIX
Upper and Lower Flammable
Limits
In Order to Burn, a mixture of Oxygen and
Fuel must be between the Flammability
Limits.
The Minimum Amount of Gas or Vapor Which
Must be Present in Air (20.9% Oxygen) to
Burn is Called the Lower Explosive Limit
(LEL).
The Maximum Amount of Gas or Vapor which
can be Present in Air and Still Burn is Known
as the Upper Explosive Limit (UEL).
The LEL and UEL are Unique and Specific to
Each Combustible Gas or Vapor.
 PHOENIX

Upper and Lower Flammable Limits

LFL (LEL) and UFL (UEL) Can be
Represented Graphically for a Combustible
Gas in Air Mixture.
Low Hi-Alarm
Alarm (Latching) Flammable
Range

Fuel and excess air Fuel rich mixture

(too lean to burn) (too rich to burn)

0% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100% LFL 100% UFL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0%

(Lower Explosive Limit) (Upper Explosive Limit)

Percent Methane (by Volume) Equivalent:

0% CH4 5% CH4 15% CH4 100% CH4
0% H2 4% H2 75% H2 100% H2
 PHOENIX

Alarm Limits as a Percent of LFL

Flammable Range
Combustible Gas 100%

Detection Systems Use

80%
a 0-100% LFL Scale

Percent of LFL
for Uniformity. 60%
FIGURE:
Alarm level
Combustible Gas Detection 40%
Alarms Set At 20% and 40%
LFL, Provide Opportunity to Intervention Warning level
20% and Correction
Intervene and Correct a Potentially
Hazardous Situation.
0
Time
 PHOENIX
Monitoring Toxic Gases
Toxic Gases and Vapors Present Health
Hazards.
NIOSH, ACGIH, OSHA Have Set Threshold
Limit Values.
These TLVs are Expressed as Follows:
Time Weighted Average, TWA, And PEL
TWA is time weighted average, and PEL is the
permissible exposure level to which an employee
may be repeatedly exposed for an 8 hour
workday and 40 hour work week without adverse
effects. OEL is defined by OSHA or others.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL)
STEL is defined as a 15 minute time weighted
average not to be exceeded at any time during
the workday.
 PHOENIX
Monitoring Toxic Gases,
continued
TLVs Continued.
Ceiling Level (C)
C
is the Highest Concentration to Which an
Employee May Ever be Exposed.
Most Toxic Gases are Hazardous at Low
Levels.
Toxic Gas Monitors Measure Concentration in
PPM. Different Ranges and Units of
Measurement are often used.
Some Toxic Gases are Also Combustible, but are
Toxic at Levels Way Below the LFL. LFL Monitors
Should Never be Used for Toxic Hazards.
 PHOENIX

Carbon Monoxide Exposure

PPM CO in Air Toxic Symptoms/Regulation
9 ppm Maximum Concentration in Living Area (ASHRAE, EPA)
35 ppm Maximum Concentration Average Over 1 Hour (UL 2034)
50 ppm Maximum Concentration for 8 Hours Continuously (OSHA)
100 ppm Alarm Level for 90 Minute Exposure (UL 2034)
200 ppm Maximum Concentration Anytime (OSHA), 35 Minutes UL)
400 ppm Life Threatening After 3 Hours, Max. for 15 Minutes (UL)
800 ppm Convulsions in 45 Minutes, Death Within 2-3 Hours
1,600 ppm Very Sick in 20 Minutes, Death Within 1 Hour
3,200 ppm Very Sick In 5-10 Minutes, Death Within 30 Minutes
6,400 ppm Very Sick in 1-2 Minutes, Death Within 10-15 Minutes
12,800 ppm Death in 1-3 Minutes

Headache, Dizziness, and Nausea Are the Initial Effects of CO Exposure Above 200 ppm.
 PHOENIX

Monitoring Oxygen (O2)

Low or High Oxygen Conditions are
Hazardous.
Minimum OSHA Allowed Level of O2 is 19.5%.
Low Oxygen Level is the Leading Cause of
Fatalities in Confined Space .
ACGIH States the Minimum Level of Oxygen as
18% at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
(760mm Hg).
Oxygen Alarms Are Factory Set at 19.5%
(Warn) and 18% (Alarm) Falling Oxygen.
Monitors with Only One Alarm are Set at
19.5% Falling Oxygen.
 PHOENIX

Monitoring Oxygen (O2),

continued
Oxygen Enriched Atmospheres are
Dangerous Due to the Increased Risk of Fire
and Explosion.
NFPA Standard 53M Defines Oxygen
Enriched Atmospheres as Any with 21%
Oxygen by Volume, or an Oxygen Partial
Pressure exceeding 160 mm Hg.
To Comply with OSHA, O2 Monitoring in
Occupied Areas Must Have a Low Alarm of
19.5% (Falling) and a High Level Alarm of
23.5% (Rising)
 PHOENIX

Common Toxic Gas TWA Values

Ammonia 25 ppm
Carbon Monoxide 25 ppm
Carbon Dioxide 5000 ppm
Chlorine 1 ppm
Chlorine Dioxide 0.1 ppm
Hydrogen Chloride 5 ppm*
Hydrogen Cyanide 4.7 ppm*
Hydrogen Sulfide 10 ppm
Nitrogen Dioxide 3 ppm
Sulfur Dioxide 2 ppm
TWA Values from 1996 ACGIH Handbook. * Indicates Ceiling Limit.
 PHOENIX

Reference Publications
ISA Recommended Practices
ACGIH: Annual TLV and BEI Guide
1330 Kemper Meadow Drive, Cincinnati OH
45240-1634
NFPA/ANSI Guides, Standards and Practices
1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy MA 02269-9101
NIOSH: Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Available by FAX Request to (513) 533-8573
OSHA, CFR 29, Section 1910.1000, Subpart Z
 PHOENIX

What Is Confined Space?

OSHA Definition:
Large Enough For Employee Entry & Work.
Has Limited or Restricted Means of Entry or Exit.
Vaults, Tanks, Pits, Silos, Bins, Hoppers, Manholes,
Sewers, Tunnels, Ship Compartments, etc.
Is Not Designed for Continuous Occupancy.
NIOSH Definition:
Space, Which By Design, Has Limited Openings for
Entry & Exit; Unfavorable Natural Ventilation
Which Could Contain or Produce Dangerous Air
Contaminants; and Which is Not Intended for
Continuous Employee Occupancy.
 PHOENIX
What is Permit Required Confined
Space?
Space That Has One or More of These
Characteristics:
Contains or has the Potential to Contain a Hazardous
Atmosphere (Toxics, Combustibles, or Oxygen
Problems).
Contains Material with the Potential for Engulfment.
Has an Internal Configuration such that an Entrant Could
be Trapped or Asphyxiated by Inwardly Converging
Walls or a Floor Which Slopes Downward and Tapers
to a Smaller Cross-Section.
Contains Any Other Recognized Serious Safety Hazard.
 PHOENIX

Some Hazardous Atmosphere

Causes
Oxygen is Absorbed By the Contents of a Vessel.
Oxygen is Displaced by Heavier-Than-Air Gases.
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks and Pipes.
Decomposing Organic Matter or Domestic Waste.
Combustion as in Vehicles, Welding, Fired
Heaters.
Cleaning, Painting, or Degreasing Chemicals.
Combustible Dust from Grain, Coal, Fibers, etc.
Oxygen Enrichment from Welding or Purging.
Inerting Gases Such as Nitrogen or Argon.
 PHOENIX

What Is A Hazardous Atmosphere?

Flammable Gas, Vapor, or Mist >10% LFL.

Atmospheric Oxygen <19.5% or >23.5%
Atmospheric Concentration of Any Hazardous
Substance Which Could Result in Exposure
In Excess of the Published Dose (OSHA
Subparts G. or Z.).
Airborne Combustible Dust >100% LFL.
Any Other Atmospheric Condition Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health.
 PHOENIX

What Is Engulfment?
The Surrounding and Effective Capture of a
Person by a Liquid or Finely Divided
(Flowable) Solid Substance That Can be
Aspirated to Cause Death, or That Can Exert
Enough Force to Cause Death by
Strangulation, Constriction, or Crushing.
Note: Seemingly Harmless Lightweight
Substances, Such as Grain, Can be Deadly,
Particularly When the Space Has Tapered
Sides or Downward Sloping Floor. A Person
Cannot Float on Lightweight Flowable Solids.
 PHOENIX

Procedures For Atmosphere Testing

29 CFR 1910.146, Appendix B.
Evaluation Testing.
Testing of the Confined Space Atmosphere to Identify and
Evaluate Any Hazardous Atmospheres That May Exist or
Arise.
Verification Testing.
Testing of the Confined Space Atmosphere for Residues of All
Contaminants Identified by Evaluation Testing, at the Time of
Entry. Values Should be Recorded on the Permit.
Other Requirements.
Test Duration Must Exceed Instrument Response Time.
Stratified Atmosphere Procedure Must be Observed.
Test for Oxygen First, Combustible Gases Next, and Toxic
Gases and Vapors Last.
 PHOENIX

Recommended Reading
Working in Confined Spaces.
NIOSH1 Publication 80-106
A Guide to Safety in Confined Spaces.
NIOSH Publication 87-113
ALERT: Request for Assistance in
Preventing Occupational Fatalities in
Confined Spaces.
NIOSH Publication 86-110
 PHOENIX

Abbreviations
NIOSH
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Association
NFPA
National Fire Protection Association
ACGIH
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienist
ISA
Instrumentation, Systems & Automation Society
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Operations Principles
Gas (Vapor) sensitive cell called sensor
Metering device

8888 i
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Sensor technology

Catalyticfor combustible
Electrochemical for O2 & Toxic
PID for organic vapors
IR (Infra-Red).. ..all Hydrocarbons
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Catalytic sensor
Two tiny heating elements in a Wheatstone bridge.
The active element oxidizes in contact with
combustible gas, unbalancing the bridge.

R1

8888

R2

+ -
 PHOENIX

Catalytic Bead Gas Sensor

Platinum Wire and
Thermal Barrier Active Bead Bead Type Sensor
Reference Bead
Conductive
Flame Mounting
Arrestor Posts
Housing Glass Filled
Post Insulator

Connector
Note: Shown without Pins (5)
Quartz Mat on Beads.
Beads Exaggerated
Side View Front View
In Size for Clarity.
Actual Size: ~15mm Dia.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Catalytic sensor
PROs:
Cheap
CONs:
Warm-up time
Easily poisoned
Limited lifetime
Oxygen dependant
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Electrochemical sensor
Chemically filled cell with electrodes. Specific gas
reacts creating a electrolysis current which is
proportional to ppm or %v/v in air.
 PHOENIX

Electrochemical Detectors
Many Toxic Gases and Oxygen Can be
Detected Using a Cell Filled with a Chemical
that Reacts with a Specific Gas.
Electrolyte

Current Flow

Charged Ions
Electrodes

Permeable
Membrane
Gas
Molecules
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
Electrochemical sensor
PROs:
Cheap
CONs:
Warm-up time
Easily poisoned
Limited lifetime
Cross-detection
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
PID sensor
PhotoIonization Device. Uses UV light to ionize
molecules of chemical substances in a gaseous or
vaporous state.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
PID sensor
PROs:
Not subject to pollution
Long lifetime, serviceable (lamp)
CONs:
Calibration difficult
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
IR sensor
Detection by chromography using IR souce.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
IR sensor
PROs:
Not subject to pollution
Long lifetime
Extremely precise and selective.

CONs:
Expensive
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
OPERATIONS PRINCIPLES

A gas detector constantly measures the

ambient surrounding for particular gas(es)
based on fitted sensors.
Any level concentration exceeding user
settable thresholds will trigger an alarm
(Low/High) to inform the bearer.
Most detectors will store Min/Max, TWA and
STEL values, some others are equipped with
datalogging options for analysis/statistics.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
OPERATIONS PRINCIPLES

These alarm values can be set to suit specific

requirements.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

A gas detector is only good as its calibration.

Recommended frequency: 6 months
Less for dirty environment
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

Calibration of a gas detector like any other

measuring instrument is the purpose to verify its
readings and re-adjust them against a known
reference for instance a calibration gas.
Calibration gases come either as a specific
percentage (Concentration) of gas or a combination
mixed with either Nitrogen or Air.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

Each model of Gas detectors need specific

Calibration gases, Calibration parameters may be
overridden but not always. Some detectors will only
accept gas mixes (all sensors are calibrated
sequentially) while others may accept one sensor
calibration.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

Calibration procedures vary with gas detectors

models and brands. Some instruments have special
features making calibration user friendly others may
demand more technical expertise. Operations
manual should always be read prior attempting
calibration on an unfamiliar model.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

Catalytic sensors used to detect combustible

require a minimum of oxygen (>9%) to function
correctly. Therefore always ensure that calibration
gas is a mix of combustible gas either with air
balance or Nitrogen + O2
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION

Calibration gases are stored under pressure (120 to

2200 PSI) and a specific pressure regulator is
required to lower the gas pressure and control the
gas flow (.15/.25/.5 and 1L/mn)
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION GASES
Two types of gases:
Reactive (H2S, Phosphine, Chlorine, Ammonia..etc)
Non-Reactive (CO, CO2, CH4,N2etc)
Reactive gases have a limited shelf life some as
short as 14 weeks due to their corrosive properties
and their tendency to dissolve in the cylinder walls.
They are generally stored in Aluminium cylinders.
Non-Reactive gases are generally stored in Steel
cylinders and have no limit of shelf life.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
CALIBRATION GASES

Calibration gases are stored under pressure and

should be handled with care. Common sizes are:
Aluminium cylinders
58 L@500 psi
34 L@500 psi
11 L@155 psi
4L @120 psi
Steel cylinders
100 L@1000 psi
19 L@300 psi
11 L@155 psi
552 L@2200 psi
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
BUMP TEST

Bump Test is the action to check that the gas

detector reacts to gases. Reading should be within
10% of specific gas values.
Bump test is recognized by all Occupational Bodies
as a mandatory check prior use.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
POISONING

The effect of external agents (gases, vapors,) to

decrease the sensitivity and lifetime of a sensor.
All types of sensors can be poisoned except IR and
PID sensors.
Very high level of gas concentration can also
poison a sensor as they are manufactured to detect
a specific range only.
 PHOENIX

Gas Detectors
ACCESSORIES

Internal pump
remote probe
dual sensor
dust filter
long autonomy batteries
cases