SHEET METAL STRUCTURES

Sheet Metal Fabrication

 Practical Test Standards
FAA-S-8081-27 Change 2 (9/24/03)
REFERENCES: AC 43-13.1B, AC 65-9A, AC 65-15A; AMT-A; JSAT.

D. SHEET METAL AND NON-METALLIC STRUCTURES

Objective. To determine that the applicant:
1. Exhibits knowledge of at least two of the following
a. inspection/testing of sheet metal structures.
b. types of sheet metal defects.
c. selection of sheet metal.
d. layout, and/or forming of sheet metal.
e. selection of rivets.
f. rivet layout.
g. rivet installation.
hq
r. maintenance safety practices/precautions for sheet metal, and/or
composite materials/structures, and/or windows.
2. *Demonstrates the ability to install and remove at least
two each, of two or more types of rivets. (Level 3)
 Practical Test Standards
FAA-S-8081-27 Change 2 (9/24/03)
REFERENCES: AC 43-13.1B, AC 65-9A, AC 65-15A; AMT-A; JSAT.

D. SHEET METAL AND NON-METALLIC

STRUCTURES
Objective. To determine that the applicant:
3. Demonstrates the ability to perform at least one of
the following
a. lay out and form sheet metal to given dimensions; include at
least one bend. (Level 3)
b. determine a rivet lay out pattern. (Level 2)
cg
h. determine hole size to use in a sheet metal repair. (Level 2)
i. inspect a sheet metal assembly or repair for airworthiness.
(Level 3)
j. drill and countersink and/or dimple sheet metal. (Level 3)
kl
 Reading Assignment
REQUIRED
Jeppesen Airframe Textbook
Chapter1, Section A
Chapter 2, Sections A, B, C & D
AC 43-13.1b
Chapter 4, Sections 1 through 4
14 CFR 43 Appendix A

OPTIONAL - REVIEW
AC 65-15A Airframe Handbook
Chapter 1 pages 1 - 26 and Chapter 5 page 127 - 200
AC 65-9A General Handbook
Chapter 6 pages 174-185, 221-216
AMT-A (FAA-H-8083-30-(ATB))
5-22 to 5-26, 6-1 to 6-19
 OVERVIEW

Key Points
Rivet Selection
Rivet Layout Patterns
Rivet Hole Preparation
Rivet Installation
Rivet Removal
Bending Sheet Metal
Bend Allowance & Layout
Sheet Metal Forming
 Key Points

Things to remember
Craftsmanship and Pride
It all about the layout
Plan aheadthe entire process -- NO
WASTE
Focus on the task minimize distractions
Perform all required steps
Let the tools do the work dont force it
Work smarter, not harder
Scratched metal is scrap metal
Time is money no do overs
 Rivet Selection
Selecting proper materials and techniques is
critical during
Initial structure fabrication
Restoring structural strength during repairs
References
Structural Repair Manual
Service Manual
Cessna has Structural Repair section in Service Manual
Piper and Beechcraft do not
AC 43.13-1B Acceptable Methods, Techniques and
Practices
 Rivet Selection (Cont)
Select proper rivet for given application
Using same alloy and size is preferred
Strength characteristics vary with rivet alloy and diameter
3/32 AD2117 = 186 lbs
3/32 DD 2024 = 241 lbs
Double shear: numbers in chart are doubled
 Rivet Selection (Cont)
Shear Strength versus Bearing Strength

Single Shear: 1/8 AD rivet

can support 331 lb load

Double Shear: 1/8 AD rivet

can support 662 lb load

Bearing strength of .040

thick 2024-T3 Alclad
supports 410 lbs bearing
force with 1/8 rivet

Remember Rivet shear strength should be slightly

less than sheet metal bearing strength
 Rivet Selection (Cont)
Selecting proper rivet diameter
When charts are not available, use following rule of
thumb:
D = 3T
Where:
D = rivet diameter
T = Thickness of THICKEST sheet of metal in the joint
Select rivet that most nearly equals 3T
Rivet diameter must be slightly smaller than hole
diameter

T
 Rivet Selection (Cont)
Selecting proper rivet
length
A properly formed shop
head will have a
Diameter of 1.5 times D -
or- D1 = 1 D
Height of .5 times D -or-
H = 1/2 D
Where:
D = non-formed rivet
diameter
D1 = shop head diameter
H = shop head height

Rivet length = material grip length plus 1 D

Convert result to closest 1/16 increment
Hole must be optimal every time and rivet length adjusted to obtain
perfect upset (shop head)
Short rivets will result in a flat upset unacceptable
Long rivets normally nail or hook over -- unacceptable
 Rivet Selection (Cont)
Rivet Cutters
Some rivets available in
half-sizes, but you may
trim long rivets to desired
length
Rivet Gauges
Used to measure upset
diameter
#3 rivet upset = 9/64 hole
#4 rivet upset = 7/32 hole
#5 rivet upset = 15/64 hole
 Rivet Layout Patterns
Rivet repair strength affected by
Strength of rivet
Strength of sheet metal
Rivet quantity and pattern
Space between rivets
Edge distance
Can not exceed minimum specifications
Riveted Sheet Metal Strength
Semi-monocoque are stressed-skin structures
Aircraft skin carries stresses into the substructure and
rivet joints/seams must be able to carry these loads
 Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)
Quantity of Rivets
Charts are available to determine the quantity of
rivets that must be used for various types and
thickness of alloy sheets
Edge Distance
Too close to edge: sheet metal will tear away
Too far from edge: metal edge can separate allowing
contaminants to enter joint and corrosion to form
Use OEM design specs or match existing pattern
Accepted practice: Center of rivet hole 2D min and 4D
max from edge
Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)
 Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)
Pitch
Distance between adjacent
rivets in same row

Too close together:

weakens sheet metal

Too far apart: metal sheets

separate

Standard rule: Hole center

to center = 3D min to 12D
max
 Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)
Transverse Pitch (Rivet
Gauge)
Distance between rivet
rows in multiple row layout

Staggered adjacent rows:

Transverse Pitch = 75%
of Pitch

Even adjacent rows:

Transverse Pitch = Pitch
 Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)

Multiple rows prevent rivets from becoming too close

and improves cosmetics of repair
Staggered rows reduce amount of sheet metal that
has to be overlapped
Drawing Layout Pattern on Sheet Metal
Draw pattern on paper first, make sure it is right BEFORE
cutting metal minimize waste
Never use scribe tool of any kind to mark layout lines, except
final edge/cut lines
NEVER use a pencil to mark layout lines --- they create
stress risers
Always use a fine line Sharpie felt tip marker
Pay attention to direction of sheet metal grain pattern
OEM markings go on inside of structure or repair
Reference corner must be perfectly straight and square
 Rivet Layout Patterns (Cont)

Sample Problem:
How many MS20470 AD-4-6 rivets will be
required to attach a 10 x 5 inch plate, using a
single row of rivets, minimum edge distance,
and 4D spacing?
 Rivet Hole Preparation
Hole prep is critical to joint
strength
Drill Size
Generally use Number or
Letter sizes in aircraft
industry rather than
Fractional sizes
Most common sizes between
3/32 and 3/8
Solid rivet hole typically .003
to .004 larger than rivet
diameter
Rivet slips in hole without
scraping away corrosion
protection coating
Rivet shank swells to fill
hole when driven
Drill Speed
5000 rpm for aluminum
Less for harder metal
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Precision Holes
Required for some mechanical fasteners
i.e. Lock Bolts or Hi-Loks
During manufacture or heavy rework
Manufacturing assembly and process drawings
Two types of hole fit:
Clearance fit: fastener smaller than hole
Interference fit: fastener lager than hole
Standard: .000 to .003 tolerance
Close Tolerance: .001 to .002 tolerance
3 Step Process
Drill pilot hole with Twist drill
Use Double Margin drill to enlarge hole to correct size
Use Reamer to finish and polish hole with cetyl alcohol or
BOELUBE lubricant
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Drilling Aides
Maintain tight
tolerance and
consistency of hole
diameter, axis angle
and concentricity
Drill blocks, bushings
and egg cups
Pneumatic Drill Care
One drop of synthetic
oil per day
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)

The Drilled Hole

Wear safety glasses at all times
Use light-weight pneumatic drill with variable trigger
Drill size slightly larger than solid rivet diameter
Tighten each chuck key hole to ensure uniform tension on drill shank and prevent
wobble
Disconnect air source when changing drill bits
Hold drill perpendicular to sheet metal
Hole must be square to ensure rivet seats correctly
Point index finger parallel to drill chuck
Support drill with opposite hand
Align drill point with hole center and twist by hand to create center point
avoid center punches - they distort the metal and cause internal fractures
Backup sheet metal with wood block
Start drill slowly, then increase drill speed minimum pressure
Pushing the hole start slowly at 45* then rotate to 90*
Use drill stops to avoid damage to corrosion protection coating and underlying
substructure/components
Drill all rivet holes with #40 bit then over size holes for larger size rivets
Use spring or draw Clecos to hold multiple sheets together when drilling
Avoid C-clamps or Cleco clamps
Use hole finders to drill blind holes
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Deburring
Aluminum alloys prone to leaving
excess material around edges of drilled
holes and cuts
Causes voids under rivet heads and
joints
Prevents maximum rivet shear strength
Remove only material above the
surface, do not countersink hole or
chamfer edge
Deburring tools
Old drill bit or countersink cutter larger
than drilled hole size
Specialty hole cutter with rotating handle
Specialty edge cutter with notch cleans
both edges simultaneously
Chip chaser removes debris between
lap joints
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Flush rivets are used in applications requiring a
smooth surface and are installed using two basic
processes:
Machined sheet metal 0.32 thick or larger
Dimpled sheet metal .025 thick or less
AN426 & MS20426 rivet, 100o head angle
Countersinking and Shaving
Do not remove more material than full diameter of
rivet head
Prevents rivet set from contacting rivet head and loses
energy when driven
Prevents rivet head from expanding into top sheet
Rivet head should stand proud .002 to .008 (above
surface) and then milled flush with a microshaver
Standing proud rivet will lose no energy when driven
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Countersink Cutters
Micro-stop countersink most
common
Cage adjusted to limit
penetration depth
Adjustable in .001 increments
Cage held stationary against the
metal while cutter is pushed into
hole until cutter reaches stop
Cutters/pilots are
interchangeable
Practice on scrap metal to adjust
cage stop to desired depth (rivet
head .002 to .008 proud)
AD3 to AD6 rivets typically .002
to .005 proud
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Optimal countersink dimensions
Rivet Size Shank Diameter CS Diameter
AD3 3/32 0.161
AD4 1/8 0.204
AD5 5/32 0.262
AD6 3/16 0.326

Drill speed is critical and must be kept high

Low air pressure causes deformed holes and renders hole unusable
and un repairable
Use sharp micros-top cutter with slow steady plunging speed
Micro-stop pilot should be approx .002 smaller than the hole
Backup hole with wood block
Use micro-stop cutter with more cutting flutes
Drill under-sized holes
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Micro-shavers
High speed pneumatic milling tool
(20,000 rpm)
Uses flat faced milling cutter to
shave rivet head flush to skin
surface
Adjustable stop limits cutter
extension (.0001 increments)
CAUTION:
Must be held 90o to surface and
centered over rivet
Pull trigger BEFORE contacting
metal
Goal is to remove rivet material,
not skin material
Used on high-speed aircraft
requiring aerodynamically smooth
surfaces
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)

Dimpling (Formed Countersinking)

Used on aluminum skin .025 thick or less
Accomplished by using dimpling dies and
hammer or press
Two types
Modified Radius Dimpling
Coin Dimpling (typically heated to 900o F)
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Modified Radius Dimpling
Most commonly used in the
field/repair shop

Hammer blow leaves curved

shoulders; bends and
stretches material

Too heavy of hammer blow or

misaligned dies during impact
will deform dimple or cause
dimple to crack

Can not stack or nest multiple

radius dimple layers because
bottom surface in more than
100o

Can nest machined

countersunk or coined dimple
layers on TOP of one radius
dimpled layer
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Coin Dimpling (typically
heated to 900o F)
Uses stationary or portable
squeezer and special dies
Movable coin ram applies
controlled pressure to top and
bottom
Forms sharply defined edges
similar to machined
countersunk
Both top and bottom surfaces
formed to 100o
Can nest any number of coin
dimpled or machined
countersunk layers
Unless otherwise specified,
coin dimple only single layers
Magnesium, Titanium and
7075 aluminum must be hot
dimpled
 Rivet Hole Preparation (Cont)
Proper compatibility of countersunk, coin dimpled, and radius
dimpled skins
 Rivet Installation

Key Points Regarding Rivet Installation

Improperly set rivet can cause adjacent rivets
to carry excessive loads and leading to failure

Excessive blows work harden rivet becomes

brittle and cracks

Shop head should be concentric with shank

and flush with surface without tipping

Shop head should be formed to proper

dimensions
 Rivet Installation
Hand Riveting
Used when access is
limited or shop air is
unavailable

Tools
Draw tool
Hand set
Bucking bar with
cupped head
Hammer

Same standards apply

as other riveting
methods
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Compression Riveting
Pneumatic or hand squeezers

Reduce Install time

Produce more uniform shaped

upset

Always position movable jaw

against rivet upset side

Shims are placed underneath dolly

to obtain desired upset dimensions

Smooth compression minimizes

work-hardening of rivet shank
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Gun Riveting
Match gun capacity to rivet size
Lightweight, fast-hitting, short-stroke guns for -3 or -4
diameter rivets
2X or 3X guns
Heavier, slow-hitting, long-stroke guns for larger diameter
rivets
4X or 5X guns
Rivet Gun Safety
Safety retaining spring prevents shooting rivet set from gun
when not placed against a surface
Never pull trigger without rivet set installed and pressed
against a rivet or scrap wood
Rivet Installation (Cont)
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Rivet Sets
Available in various shapes and angle offsets
Universal head rivets
Too large will to create smiles in metal
Too small will create smiles in rivet head
Smiles damage protective coating and create stress
risers -- unacceptable
Flush head rivets
One size fits all
some have rubber protection ring
Avoid tipping and skipping across skin
Bucking Bars
Reciprocating bounce of bar compresses the rivet shank
Surface is polished smooth to prevent marks in upset
Too heavy/excess pressure causes thin too thin upsets or
protruding heads
Too light/loose pressure rivet set deforms sheet metal
Rivet Installation (Cont)
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Gun Set-up and
Adjustment
Always practice on
scrap metal first!
Adjust airflow so a few
blows from gun will
indent wood but not
shatter it
Adjust regulator to limit
blows to 4-5 to properly
form rivet
One drop of synthetic
oil per week do not
over oil
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Rivet Driving Technique
Position rivet gun square
against rivet head
Directly in-line with shank
Apply even pressure
Position bucking bar
against rivet shank
Keep face perpendicular
to rivet shank using finger
tips as guide
Apply light pressure
Squeeze trigger limit
blows to 4-5 hits
Team Riveting
One tap = Start riveting
Two taps = Rivet ok or
drive again
Three taps = Bad rivet,
driver marks rivet head
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
NACA Flush Rivets
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Shop head driven flush with outside skin and
protruding manufactured head is on inside
Countersink 82o instead of 100o

82o Outside Surface

Inside Surface

MS20426
 Rivet Installation (Cont)
Evaluate Driven Rivets
Upset diameter = 1 D
Use rivet gauge

Upset height = D
Use straight edge along row

Upset concentric with

shank/hole
Circular mark on upset
Even margin between circle
and edge

Tipped head or upset

 Rivet Removal
Removing rivets increases
possibility of damage to hole
always use sharp bit
Select drill bit one number size
smaller than rivet hole
4 Step Process
1) Mark center of rivet head
with drill tip
2) Drill through the head
NOT the shank
3) Break off rivet head with pin
npunch and tipping motion
4) Backup metal and drive
rivet shank out with a pin
punch
Pin Punch versus Cape Chisel
Cape chisel can be used to
break drilled head off but care
must be taken not to scratch
or dent the surrounding metal
Bending Sheet Metal

If an L bracket measured
exactly 1 on each side, how
much material is required to
form the bracket?

More than 2 inches

Exactly 2 inches

Less than 2 inches

 Bending Sheet Metal (Cont)
Terminology
Sheet Metal Grain
Molecule elongation in direction
the metal is passed through rollers
during manufacture Grain Direction
Orient bends perpendicular to
grain to prevent cracks
Bend Radius (Br)
The degree of bend measured on
inside of curve
Minimum bend radius is tightest
bend allowed for specific metal
thickness without causing cracks
Bend Tangent Line (Btl)
Designates where the sheet metal
begins to form around the bend DEVELOPED WIDTH
radius
Flats
Distance between inside bend
tangent lines, or from end of metal
to first bend tangent line
Flat dimension always smaller
than the desired developed width
 Bending Sheet Metal
Terminology (cont.)
Neutral Axis
A line inside the metal that neither
shrinks or stretches in a bend
approximately 44.53% of the
sheet thickness from inside of the
bend
For practical purposes we assume
it is the center of the metal
Mold Line
Reference line extending from
external side of metal out beyond
the bend radius from which
dimensions can be established
Mold Point
Point where two mold lines
intersect; used to make
measurements
Sight Line
Line marked off from the bend
tangent line that will be placed
under the nose of the brake, at a
distance equal to the bend radius
used
Only marked line needed to bend
metal
 Bending Sheet Metal (Cont)
Terminology (Cont)
Setback (Sb)
Distance between the mold line
and bend tangent line inside the
bend area:
Sb = Br + Mt x K
K = 1.000 for 90o bends; refer to
charts for other bend angles
K = Tan (Bend Degrees / 2)
Always subtract setback from
desired flat dimension
Subtract setback for each bend
formed on the flat ends
Open Angle
Inside bend angle greater than
90o
Closed Angle
Inside bend angle less than 90o
 Bending Sheet Metal (Cont)
Terminology (Cont)
Bend Allowance (Ba)
Amount of metal actually used in
bend and equal to length of neutral
axis does not include any metal
in flat areas
Small radius bends use less
material
Large radius bends use more
material
Always add bend allowance to flats
to determine total developed width
of layout pattern
Formula assuming neutral axis lies
in center of metal:
Ba = p(2Br + Mt)/360 x Degrees of
Bend
Empirical formula using actual
neutral axis:
Ba = (.0078Mt + .01743Br) x Degrees
of Bend
 Bending Sheet Metal (Cont)
Bend Allowance Charts
90 degree bend top line
Single degree bend bottom line
 Bend Allowance & Layout
Always draw layout pattern on paper FIRST
then transfer layout to sheet metal!

Grain Direction
 Bend Allowance & Layout (Cont)
Bend Allowance and Layout ProcessYou must
know this!
Determine metal thickness and type per plan
Determine minimum bend radius allowed
Determine bend radius and bend angle per plan
Calculate setback value (always a subtraction)
Calculate flat lengths
Calculate bend allowance (always an addition)
Calculate total layout dimensions
Mark sight lines and edge lines on sheet metal
Pay attention to grain direction
Cut metal to size and drill relief holes
Debur all edges and relief holes before bending
 Bend Allowance Problem 1
The amount of material required The length of flat A is:
to make the 90 bend is:
a) 3.750 inches.
a) 0.3436 inch. b) 3.875 inches.
b) 0.3717 inch. c) 3.937 inches.
c) 0.3925 inch.
 Bend Allowance Problem 2
What is the length of flat A? What is the flat layout
dimension?
a) 3.7 inches.
a) 7.0 inches.
b) 3.8 inches. b) 6.8 inches.
c) 3.9 inches. c) 6.6 inches.
 Bend Allowance Problem 3
What is dimension D?
Given:
Setback = .252
Bend allowance = .345

a) 3.492.
b) 4.182.
c) 3.841.
 Bend Allowance Problem 4
What is dimension F?
Given:
Setback at D = .095
Setback at E = .068
Bend allowance at D = .150
Bend allowance at E = .112

a) 4.836.
b) 5.936.
c) 5.738.
 Bend Allowance & Layout (Cont)
5 Layout and Bending Mandates
Convert all fractions to decimal (use at least 3
places)

Your math must be correct

Layout lines must be correct

The brake must be correctly adjusted

The material must be precisely located in the

brake
 Bend Allowance & Layout (Cont)

Relief Holes
Used to relieve stress and
prevent cracks at corners or
intersection of two bends
Positioned inside Bend
Allowance area
Relief hole diameter equal to
twice the Bend Radius and
centered on intersection of
inner Bend Tangent Lines
Not less than 1/8 diameter
for aluminum alloy up to .064
thick
Not less than 3/16 diameter
for stock .072 to .128 thick
Start small then drill oversized
 Sheet Metal Forming

Forming Bends
Cornice or Finger Brake
Determine Bend Radius and Adjust Nose for Metal Thickness
Adjust fingers to match part width
Place metal in jaws, position sight line even with leading edge of
nose, close jaws
Rotate folding leaf to desired bend angle plus springback
Vice and Block
Clamp metal in vise using hardwood radius block and pressure
block
Use plastic or rubber mallet and hardwood block to form metal
Compound Curves & Contours
When straight bends are made, the inside of bend is shrunk and
outside of bend is stretched, but no metal is displaced
When compound curves are formed, metal is displaced and
shrinking and stretching takes place in more than one plane
Do not shrink or stretch tempered aluminum; soft aluminum ok
 Sheet Metal Forming (Cont)
Bumping
Used to form annealed 3003-O or 5052-O
aluminum with a forming block and mallet
Flanging Lightening Holes
Decrease weight by cutting holes in material
Adjustable fly cutter or hole saw
Increase rigidity by flanging the edges
Two piece flanging die set and press
Joggles
Keeps metal layers flat in overlapping joints
Form to fit rather than pulled together with rivets
Use joggle fork/die or stacked sheet metal and
press
Do not want 90o angle in joggle
 SUMMARY

Key Points
Rivet Selection
Rivet Layout Patterns
Rivet Hole Preparation
Rivet Installation
Rivet Removal
Bending Sheet Metal
Bend Allowance & Layout
Sheet Metal Forming
THE END
Minimum Band Radius Chart
K - Factor Chart
Drill Position
Lightening Holes
Joggles