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Natural gas exploration and

production process
Exploration and production
process
Safe and responsible energy development is
revolutionizing U.S. energy supply, as well as providing
jobs and other economic benefits to local, state and
federal governments.

Unconventional drilling requires the same basic steps to


move a well from an idea through completion and
production. Below are six key steps to the energy
development process.
Seismic
During this step, studies of the Earths
subsurface are conducted to increase our
understanding of the local geology.
Geologists, engineers and other experts
collaborate to identify a site that will
ensure access to the targeted oil and gas
reservoirs.
Site preparation
Sites are selected in consideration of several
factors: safety, the surrounding environment,
nearby property owners, and vehicle/pipeline
access. By drilling multiple wells at a single
location, Extraction is able to reduce the number
of well-pad sites and in turn, reduce impact to
the environment and inconvenience to the
community
Drilling the well
It takes approximately 8 to 10 days to drill a well.
During this process, multiple layers of protective
steel casing are cemented in the ground to
ensure nothing can get into, or out of, the
wellbore being drilled. The depth of these wells
is on average 1.5 miles below the earths surface
and more than a mile of impenetrable rock
separates the oil and gas reservoirs from the
potable water table.
Completing the well
After the rig leaves, completion activities begin
as soon as the equipment arrives and may take
between three to five days per well. Each well is
pressure tested before beginning completion
activities to ensure the well is structurally sound.
During this process a mixture of sand, water and
a small proportion of other ingredients are
pumped into the well to facilitate the release oil
and natural gas.
Monitoring the well
Once a well begins production, excess equipment is
removed. Only the wellheads, separators and storage
tanks remain. Oil and natural gas produced by the well
travels via truck or pipeline to market. Any water
produced from the well will also be hauled or piped
offsite for disposal. During this phase, the wells are
constantly monitored (24/7) through automated
equipment and if any issues arise, wells can be
immediately and remotely shut-in. As an extra
precaution, the well is checked daily by an operator who
goes onsite to ensure all equipment is comprehensively
maintained.
Reclaiming the site
At the end of the process, the well site is
reduced to a much smaller size and
fenced. The surrounding area is
reclaimed with native vegetation and
landscaped to camouflage the well site
and help blend in with surrounding
vegetation.
Types of natural gas

Natural gas is used as fuel for automobiles in


mainly two forms:

CNG-Compressed Natural Gas


LNG-Liquefied Natural Gas
CNG-Compressed Natural Gas
Made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of
methane [CH4]), to less than 1% of the volume it occupies at standard
atmospheric pressure.

A fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane/LPG.

More environmentally clean alternative to those fuels, and is much


safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than
air, and disperses quickly when released).

CNG may also be mixed with biogas, produced from landfills or


wastewater, which doesn't increase the concentration of carbon in
the atmosphere.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
Natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that has been converted
to liquid form for ease of storage or transport.
Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural
gas in the gaseous state.
It is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
The liquefaction process involves removal of certain components,
such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and heavy hydrocarbons,
which could cause difficulty downstream.
The natural gas is then condensed into a liquid at close to
atmospheric pressure (maximum transport pressure set at around
25 kPa/3.6 psi) by cooling it to approximately 162 C (260 F).
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets,
where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas.
It can be used in natural gas vehicles, although it is more
common to design vehicles to use compressed natural gas.
Its relatively high cost of production and the need to store it in
expensive cryogenic tanks have hindered widespread
commercial use but it can emerge as an alternative fuel for
heavy duty vehicles like bus, trucks, ships etc.
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

More in abundance than any other fossil fuel Size of storage tanks

3040% less greenhouse gas emissions Possible weight disadvantage

Less expensive than gasoline Fewer miles on a tank of fuel

Has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per Limited vehicle availability
pound.

Can be safely stored and burned. Less readily available than gasoline and diesel
Properties
FUEL PETROL DIESEL NATURAL LPG ELECTRI-
GAS CITY
Chemical C4 to C12 C8 to C25 CH4 (8399%), 2H6 C3H8 (majority) and H2
Structure
(113%) C4H10
Physical State Liquid Liquid Compressed Gas Pressurized Liquid Electricity

Reserve Available 40 years 55 years 60 years 30 years Unlimited

Uses All types of vehicles Heavy duty vehicles All types of vehicles. Cars mainly Cars and scooters

Pollution level Most polluting Cleaner than Petrol Cleaner than Petrol, Diesel Cleaner than Petrol and Least polluting
and LPG Diesel

Cost Most expensive Cheaper than Petrol Comparatively cheapest Cheaper than Petrol and Cheapest
Diesel

Energy 124,340 Btu/gal 137,380 Btu/gal 22453 Btu/lb-CNG 91,410 Btu/gal 3,414 Btu/kWh
Content 84,820 Btu/gal -LNG
CONCLUSION
To summarize, these are the following features of natural gas:

Cheaper than petrol, diesel, LPG and better mileage.


More in abundance than any other fossil fuel.
Natural gas is the lowest carbon fossil fuel. Natural gas emits 22%
less carbon dioxide than oil and 40% less than coal.
Can be used in all vehicles from two vehicles to ships
Natural gas is transportable. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and long
distance pipelines have transformed global gas markets and
increased the breadth and depth of the global gas trade.
Can be safely stored and burned.
Has high heating value of 24,000 Btu per pound.
Natural Gas Application
CHONG KAH LEOMG, JOSHUA 1131122826
Introduction
Natural Gas Features:
A versatile energy,
Does not generate solid particles or sulphur, suitable
replacement for oil derivatives
Clean, economical, efficient and highly reliable.
Cheapest energies on the market with the most stable price.
Installation is easy and simple, provides added value to
business.
Has high calorific power, ideal and most efficient energy for
heating and achieving high temperatures in minimal time.
Natural Gas Application Sectors:
1. Residential sector
Fuel replacement: gasoil; propane/butane; electricity; coal;
fuel oil; biomass.

Applications: hot water; heating; cooking; dryers; gas fires;


barbecues; dishwashers; preheating.

2. Service sector
Fuel replacement: gasoil; propane; electricity; coal; biomass

Applications: climate control (heating and cooling); central


heating systems; hot water; cooking/preparing food
3. Industrial sector
Fuel replacement: gasoil; propane; electricity; coal; fuel oil;
biomass.
Applications: steam generation; central heating systems; food
industry; cement industry; drying; firing ceramic products; metal
casting; heat treatments; metal tempering and annealing; smelting
furnaces; power generation: micro- and cogeneration.

4. Energy sector
Fuel replacement: coal; fuel oil.
Applications: thermal power plants;
electricity cogeneration.

5. Transportation sector
Fuel replacement: diesel; petrol.
Applications: buses; taxis; transport fleets;
forklift trucks; private vehicles
1. Residential sector
Natural are available in two different supplies:
- Stored in Gas Tank
- Continuous supply from Gas Pipe

Natural gas to heat buildings and water, to cook, and to dry clothes.
Residential natural gas statistic:
Half of the homes in the United States use natural gas.
In 2015, natural gas was the source of about 23% of U.S.
residential sector energy consumption.
70 percent of all new homes are built with gas heating
systems.
Home furnaces can reach efficiencies of over 90 percent.
Increasing building efficiency are considered the most cost-
effective way to reduce the amount of natural gas used.
An ambitious program to improve building performance
through means such as high-efficiency insulation, windows,
furnaces, water heaters, and other appliances is estimated to
save 234 trillion cubic feet of natural gas over the next 50
years
The Department of Energy (DOE) determined
that natural gas is the lowest cost
conventional energy source available for
residential use. Where it costs approximately
68 percent less than the cost of electricity, per
Btu (British thermal unit).
Natural gas heating and cooking.
Provide easy temperature control, self ignition, quick heating
ability & self cleaning
One-half the cost of cooking with an electric range.
Newer generations of natural gas ranges allow for some of the
most efficient, economical, and responsive cooking appliances
in existence.

Residential heating.
62 million homes in the U.S are heated using natural gas. (56
percent of households).
54 percent of new family homes completed in 2010 used
natural gas for heating
Despite massive increase in homes using natural gas, the
actual amount of natural gas consumed has not increased to
the same degree, due to increased efficiency of natural gas
appliances.
Natural gas powered air conditioning.
Due to new advancements in technology and efficiency,
natural gas air conditioning is experiencing a resurgence in
popularity.
Despite the initially expensive cost compare to electric unit,
they are considerably more efficient and require less
maintenance. It uses close up to 30 percent less energy than
in years past, and have an expected working life of 20 years
with very little maintenance.
Residential distributed generation
Natural gas is used to generate electricity right at the
doorstep. Natural gas fuel cells and microturbines both offer
the capacity to disconnect from their local electric distributor,
and generate just enough electricity to meet their needs.
Offer independent, reliable, efficient, environmentally-friendly
electricity for residential needs.
On-site electric generation could lead to significantly higher
energy efficiency, which translates to cost savings for the
residential consumer.
Other Appliances
Natural gas appliances include space heaters, clothes dryers,
pool and jacuzzi heaters, fireplaces, barbecues, garage heaters
and outdoor lights are initially more expensive than their
electric counterparts, but much cheaper to operate, have a
longer expected life, and require relatively low maintenance.
They also offer a safe, efficient, and economical alternative to
electricity.
The same natural gas pipes that supply gas to a furnace can be
used to supply energy for all of the appliances listed above,
making installation simple and easy.
2. Service Sector
E.g.: Restaurants, Hot Spa, Heating and Cooling for commercial
buildings, etc.
1. Most of the natural gas supply is not stored,
because supplied continuously through gas pipes. This
saves space and reduces risks and odours of having other
fuels stored on your premises.
2. Mainly natural gas are used for space heating, water
heating and cooling, and for cooking purpose.
Commercial Sector Statistic :
- consumes about 233 trillion Btus of natural gas.
(or 39 percent of all commercial fuel source ) of energy a year
(A Desiccant Unit Atop the Park Hyatt Hotel, Washington D.C, Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, DOE)

- accounts for 13 percent of energy used in commercial cooling


and is estimated to increase due to technological innovations
Natural gas fired cooling system
3 types of natural gas driven cooling processes.
A) Engine driven chillers use a natural gas engine, instead of an
electric motor, to drive a compressor.
- waste heat is used for heating
applications, increasing energy efficiency.

B) Absorption chillers provide cool air by evaporating a refrigerant


like water or ammonia.
- best suited to cooling large commercial
buildings, office towers and shopping malls.

C) Gas-based desiccant systems cool by


reducing humidity in the air.
- Cooling this dry air requires much less
energy than it would to cool humid air.
Commercial cooking
- New developments such as Nontraditional Restaurant
Systems, provide compact, multifunctional natural gas
appliances for smaller sized food outlets.
- These systems providing the ease and efficiency of natural gas
cooking while being compact by integrate a gas-fired fryer,
griddle, oven, hot and cold storage areas, and multiple
venting options in a relatively small space.

.
Backup electricity generators
- Natural gas powered reciprocating engines, turbines, and fuel
cells are all used in commercial settings to generate electricity.
- These generator offer more independence from power
disruption, high-quality consistent electricity, and control over
their own energy supply
Combined heating and power (CHP) & combined cooling,
heating and power (CCHP) systems
- integrated systems that are able to use energy that is normally
lost as heat to increase energy efficiency.
- Heat released from natural gas powered electricity generators
is used to run space or water heaters, or commercial boilers.
3. Industrial sector
Since natural gas is constantly supplied to generate energy in
industry, there is no need for storage tanks, thus avoiding the
risks of having to pay for the cost of fuel in advance.
Natural gas is the reliable energy that is always considered
available, thus allowing better management of the production
process.
No preparation is required as is necessary for other fuels, like
oil or coal.
Natural gas burns cleaner, hence the equipment and burners
are easier to clean and require less maintenance; hence
remain in good condition for longer.
Natural gas combustion can be switched off instantly when
the heat demand ceases. Easy in adapting to the varying
operational needs of the production process.
Can be regulated with high precision, keeping temperature
constant.
Natural gas has more heating power than other fuels, so
equipment performs better and with the right amount of fuel.
Use in production processes, especially in furnace and boilers:
Glass industry: Natural gas burners allow optimal heat
transmission in glass. Thanks to its properties, the glass comes
out cleaner

Ceramics industry: Enables cost savings and higher-quality


productsas natural gas has lower cost per kilowatt hour, it also
decreases the formation of stains and discolourations in items
during firing and drying.

Cement industry: Natural gas furnaces require less


maintenance and have longer working lives. They are more
efficient and help to reducing pollution, as the waste gases are
non-polluting.

Textile industry: Significant energy savings by allowing direct


heating through convection instead of heating through
intermediate fluids.
Food industry: Natural gas is used in cooking and drying
processes. It also enables compliance with ISO quality
requirements necessary for exporting certain products.
Metal casting: Natural gas is used in heating metals, both in
melting and in reheating and heat treatments.

Natural gas furnace Natural gas boiler


Natural Gas Industrial Application:
1. Co-firing natural gas is used in addition to other fuels which
may be less efficient or release more emissions, such as coal,
wood and biomass energy
2. Waste treatment and incineration
3. Powers Infrared Heating Units - an economic method to
generate heat in an industrial setting, especially metals industry
4. Drying and dehumidification through natural gas desiccant
systems
5. Extracting propane and ethane from natural gas and used to
make fertilizers and pharmaceutical products.
6. Used to produce methanol which in turn is used to produce
such substances as formaldehyde, acetic acid, and MTBE
7. Direct Contact Water Heaters
4. Energy sector
Natural gas is the most economical fuel for power generation
and it is the fuel that produces the least environmental
impact.
Natural gas can producing electricity by the use of turbines
through Combined cycle power plants & Cogeneration.
Energy Generation Natural Gas Statistic
Most natural gas is burned as a fuel. In 2012, 30% of the
energy consumed across USA was obtained from natural gas

The relatively low capital requirements for building natural


gas-fired combined cycle generation plants, and the reduction
of emissions earned from using natural gas as opposed to
other fossil fuels has expected 60 percent of new natural gas
electric generation capacity to be built by 2035.

In 2015, natural gas was the source of about 18% of U.S.


commercial sector energy consumption.
3 Energy generation through natural gases components:

a) Steam generation units


Natural gas are used in the same way as other fossil fuels
where it is burned and a boiler is used to heat water and
produce steam that turns a turbine to generate electricity.
b) Centralised gas turbines
Hot gases from burning natural gas are used to turn the
turbine and generate electricity.
c) Combined cycle units
Uses both a gas turbine and a steam unit, where waste heat
from the gas-turbine process used to generate steam.
Natural gas is used to power back-up generators and
distribute generated energy
Combined Cycle Power Plant
An electricity production plant that combines two processes or
cycles to obtain maximum yield:

i) the Brayton cycle, (the combustion gases directly drive a gas


turbine)
ii) Rankine cycle, (the residual energy of turbine exhaust gases is used
to generate steam in a boiler, which then drives a steam turbine).

Both machines (gas and steam turbine)


drive an alternator that converts
mechanical energy into electricity.
This combination allow much greater
energy efficiency (57%) than
Conventional Thermal Power
Stations (35%).
Cogeneration / combined heat and power (CHP)

Ultilise the properties of natural gas to produce both heat and


electricity simultaneously
As heat is inevitably produced in the conversion of natural gas
energy into electricity, using this heat to cogenerate will
results in very high overall efficiency.
By cogenerating electricity and heat in the facilities, it avoids
most transmission losses and act as an efficient way of
covering the energy needs of industrial facilities.
Cogeneration systems are highly efficient, able to put 75 to 80
percent of the energy in gas to use.
Trigeneration systems, which provide electricity, heating, and
cooling, can reach even higher efficiencies.
Natural Gas-Fired Plants

Cheapest power plants to construct.


Higher operating costs as the fuel was more expensive.
Greater operational flexibility than coal plants because
they can be fired up and turned down rapidly; used
primarily to provide peaking capacity at times when
electricity demand was especially high,
A 2011 MIT study calculated that increased utilization of
existing natural gas power plants to displace coal-fired
power could reduce the electric sector's carbon
emissions by 22 percent in the near term.
5. Transportation
Natural gas can acts as an automotive petrol substitute for
spark ignition internal combustion engines and partial diesel
substitute in compression ignition engines.

Natural Gas Vehicles (NGVs) can take the form of virtually any
vehicle including utility gasoline and diesel vehicles ,
passenger cars and vans, they are mostly used for fuel
intensive fleets, such as taxis and public buses.

Its low emission makes it easy for new vehicles to meet


increasing environmental standards.
Transportation Natural Gas Statistic

Natural gas use in transportation sector is still in its infancy,


although natural gas powered vehicles present an enormous
opportunity for cleaning up the emissions from this sector.

In 2010, there are more than 11.6 million natural gas vehicles
in circulation and some 17,000 service stations worldwide.

There are already 700,000 vehicles in circulation in Italy and


85,000 in Germany, while in Spain the number drops to 2,900.

Natural gas supplies barely a fraction of the total energy used


in the transportation sector, and the demand to supply natural
gas vehicle operation is almost negligible as most of this
demand is for natural gas to fuel the pipeline transportation of
hydrocarbons
.
The demand for natural gas vehicles is expected to increase in
the future due to new legislation and regulation on the
emissions of transportation sector.

More stringent emissions standards are adopted, the


automotive industry are to devote more into the development
of feasible production line natural gas vehicles.

The technology, including the need for a natural gas refueling


infrastructure, are current barriers to the widespread
proliferation of natural gas vehicles.
Advantages of natural gas as a vehicle fuel

a) Environmental benefits
Burns the cleanest.
Emissions are much lower than those from vehicles that use petrol.
Contains less carbon than any other fossil fuel, and it therefore
generates fewer carbon emissions

b) Saving money
Cost savings starting at 25% and able to reach 40% depending on the
type of vehicle and the charging station compared to conventional
automotive diesel.
Moreover, it burns cleaner, reducing maintenance needs.

c) High level of safety


Safer than those traditional fuels vehicles, as vehicular natural gas
dissipates in the atmosphere in the event of an accident. Petrol, on
the other hand, remains on the ground, creating a fire hazard.
Environmental Impact from
Natural Gas
1. Global warming emissions

Global warming emissions from its combustion are much


lower than those from coal or oil.

Emits 50 to 60 percent less carbon dioxide (CO2)


compare to Coal.

The drilling and extraction of natural gas from wells and


its transportation in pipelines results in the leakage of
methane.
2. Air pollution

Cleaner burning than other fossil fuels, the combustion of natural


gas produces negligible amounts of sulfur, mercury, and particulates.
Burning natural gas does produce nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are
precursors to smog, but at lower levels than gasoline and diesel used
for motor vehicles.
unconventional gas development can affect local and regional air
quality.
Some areas where drilling occurs have experienced increases in
concentrations of hazardous air pollutants.
Exposure to elevated levels of these air pollutants can lead to
adverse health outcomes, including respiratory symptoms,
cardiovascular disease, and cancer
One recent study found that residents living less than half a mile
from unconventional gas well sites were at greater risk of health
effects from air pollution from natural gas development than those
living farther from the well sites
3. Land use and wildlife

The construction and land disturbance required for oil and gas
drilling can alter land use and harm local ecosystems by
causing:
- Erosion
- Fragmenting wildlife habitats
- Migration patterns.

When oil and gas operators clear a site to build a well pad,
pipelines, and access roads, the construction process can
cause erosion of:
- Dirt
- Minerals
- Other harmful pollutants

All those harmful pollutants will flow to the streams


A study of hydraulic fracturing impacts in Michigan found
potential environmental impacts to be significant and
include:
1. Increased erosion and sedimentation
2. Increased risk of aquatic contamination from chemical
spills or equipment runoff,
3. Habitat fragmentation reduction of surface waters as a result
of the lowering of groundwater levels.
4. Water use and Pollution

Unconventional oil and gas development may pose health risks to


nearby communities.
Contamination of drinking water sources with hazardous chemicals
used in drilling the wellbore hydraulically fracturing the well.
Processing and refining the oil or gas, or disposing of wastewater.

Naturally occurring radioactive materials, methane, and other


underground gases have sometimes leaked into drinking water
supplies from improperly cased wells.

Methane is not associated with acute health effects but in sufficient


volumes may pose flammability concerns.

The large volumes of water used in unconventional oil and gas


development also raise water-availability concerns in some
communities.
Groundwater

Groundwater near oil and gas wells being contaminated with


fracking fluids as well as with gases, including methane and
volatile organic compounds.

One major cause of gas contamination is improperly


constructed or failing wells that allow gas to leak from the well
into groundwater.

Cases of contamination have been documented in Ohio and


Pennsylvania

Another potential avenue for groundwater contamination is


natural or man-made fractures in the subsurface, which could
allow stray gas to move directly between an oil and gas
formation and groundwater supplies.
Surface water

Unconventional oil and gas development also poses contamination


risks to surface waters through:
Spills and leaks of chemical additives.
Spills and leaks of diesel or other fluids from equipment on-site.
Leaks of wastewater from facilities for storage, treatment, and
disposal.

Unlike groundwater contamination risks, surface water


contamination risks are mostly related to land management and to
on- and off-site chemical and wastewater management.

Improper management of flowback or produced wastewater can


cause leaks and spills.

There is also risk to surface water from deliberate improper disposal


of wastewater by bad actors.
5. Earthquakes

Hydraulic fracturing itself has been linked to low-magnitude


seismic activityless than 2 moment magnitude (M), but such
mild events are usually undetectable at the surface.

The disposal of fracking wastewater by injecting it at high


pressure into deep Class II injection wells, however, has been
linked to larger earthquakes in the United States.

At least half of the 4.5 M or larger earthquakes to strike the


interior of the United States in the past decade have occurred
in regions of potential injection-induced seismicity.
Natural Gas Turbine
1. Air Intake

When the unit is put into operation, air is pulled in from outside and
compressed.

2. Combustion Chamber

This compressed air is ignited by burning fuel and expands. The


resulting combustion develops 300,000 horsepower. Combustion
turbines operate differently from coal-fired or nuclear plants. Rather
than using steam to drive a turbine, combustion turbines harness the
nature of air to expand when it is heated.

3. Turbine

The expanding air pushes the turbine generators much like steam does
in a steam-electric station. The turbines then turn the electric
generators. In simplest terms, a turbine is a series of many long, thin
blades similar to propeller blades. Two-thirds of the horsepower
generated rotates the air-compressor turbine. The remaining energy
spins the electric generator.
Generate electricity

In these types of units, instead of heating steam to turn a


turbine, hot gases from burning fossil fuels (particularly
natural gas) are used to turn the turbine and generate
electricity. Gas turbine and combustion engine plants are
traditionally used primarily for peak-load demands, as it is
possible to quickly and easily turn them on

These plants have increased in popularity due to advances in


technology and the availability of natural gas. However, they
are still traditionally slightly less efficient than large steam-
driven power plants.
Combined Cycle Units
New natural gas fired power plants
Both a gas turbine and a steam unit, all in one.
The gas turbine operates in much the same way as a normal
gas turbine, using the hot gases released from burning natural
gas to turn a turbine and generate electricity.
In combined-cycle plants, the waste heat from the gas-turbine
process is directed toward generating steam, which is then
used to generate electricity much like a steam unit.
Efficient use of the heat energy released from the natural gas,
combined-cycle plants are much more efficient than steam
units or gas turbines alone. In fact, combined-cycle plants can
achieve thermal efficiencies of up to 50 to 60%
Theory of Operation
Ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes:
an isentropic compression, an isobaric (constant pressure)
combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat rejection.

Together, these make up the Brayton cycle.

In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due


to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy
when the gas is compressed.

Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific volume of


the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure.

During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the


turbine, irreversible energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh
air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection.
If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial
generator, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as
possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure
losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust.

For a turboprop engine there will be a particular balance between


propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical
operation.

In a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from


the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The
remaining high-pressure gases are accelerated to provide a jet to
propel an aircraft.
The smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shafts
must be to attain the required blade tip speed.

Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can


be obtained by the turbine and the compressor.

This limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained
by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the
diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must
double.

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex


than internal combustion piston engines.

Simple turbines might have one main moving part, the


compressor/shaft/turbine rotor assembly with other moving parts in
the fuel system.
More advanced gas turbines such as those found in modern jet engines may
have 2 or 3 shafts, hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable
stator blades, and extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems.

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. They
are hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil-cooled rolling-element bearings. Foil
bearings are used in some small machines such as micro turbines and also
have strong potential for use in small gas turbines/auxiliary power units.

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