Electrical Power System

Protection
 :

Bus-Bars: Bus-Bars are copper rods or thin

walled tubes and operate at constant voltage.
Advantages:
(i) If a fault occurs on any section of
the bus-bar that section of the
bus-bar may be isolated without
affecting the supply to other
sections.
(ii) If a fault occurs on any feeder, the
fault current is much lower than
with the un-sectionalized bus-bar.
This permits the use of circuit
breakers of lower capacity in the
feeders.
(iii) The repairs and maintenance of
any section of the bus-bar can be
carried out by de-energizing that
section only, eliminating the
possibility of complete shut-
down.
Current Limiting reactors: (clrs)
Def. Reactor is a coil which has high inductive
reactance as compared to its resistance and is used
to limit the short circuit current during fault
conditions.
To perform this function it is essential that
magnetic saturation at high current does not
reduce the coil resistance.
Reactors are usually built as single phase units.
 The reactors may be built with non-magnetic cores
(saturation of magnetic cores would lead to a
decreased inductance at large currents and thereby
increased short circuit currents) or alternatively with
an iron core with an air-gap included in the magnetic
circuit.
The losses in reactors are I2 R and eddy current losses.
To reduce the latter the standard conductor is
generally used. If an iron core is employed there are
additional hysteresis and eddy current losses in the
iron.
Total loss is of the order of 5% of KVA rating of reactor.
Types of Air cored reactors:
(i) Oil Immersed Type: Oil immersed reactors can
be cooled by any of the means used for cooling
the power transformer.
(ii) Dry type: The dry type are usually cooled by
natural ventilation and some times designed
with forced-air and heat exchanger auxiliaries.
Air cored coils with constant reactance are generally
preferred as iron cored inductors become expensive
and bulky for offering the constant reactance for
currents two to three times the normal value.
Location of reactors:
1. Generator Reactors:
Disadvantages:
(i) There is a constant voltage
drop and power loss in the
reactor even during normal
operations.
(ii) If a bus-bar or feeder fault occurs close to the bus-bar,
the voltage at the bus-bar will be reduced to a low value,
thereby causing the generator to fall out of step.
(iii) If a fault occurs on any feeder, the continuity of supply
to other feeders is likely to be affected.
 2. Feeder Reactors:

Disadvantages:
(i) There is a constant voltage
drop and power loss in the
reactor even during normal
operations.
(ii) If the short circuit occurs at the bus-bars, no protection is
provided to the generators.
(iii) If the number of generators is increased, the size of feeder
reactors will have to be increased to keep the short circuits
with in the ratings of the feeder circuit breakers.
 3. Bus-bar Reactors:

1. Ring system:

2. Tie-bar System:
Current Limiting Reactor:
(480 Amp/37H Fault current 20000 Amp)

Current Limiting Reactors are used for line reactors, inrush

current limiting, and surge current limiter applications. Current
Limiting Reactor (CLR) develops a higher voltage drop across the
CLRs when the current through the CLRs increases. Current
limiting reactors are gapped inductor intended to reduce the
short circuit currents passing through the circuit breaker in the
power system.
An example of a 480 Amps
CLR, is shown. Three fault
limiting reactors are installed
in one indoor enclosure.

Specifications:
Current-Limiting Reactor, dry type, 480 Amps, 3 PH, 60 Hz,
Fault current: 20000 Amps
Inductance: 37H 25%
Three single phase gapped inductors are used for a three
phase application.
Enclosure dimensions: 24 H x 20 W x 9 D approximately
Four louvers are installed on the enclosure for free airflow
 6.7 VAC drop is estimated across the CLR at 480 amps
continuous current.
Copper bus bar: 2 x 1/4 thick with one hole
Core is gapped. Without gap, core will saturate at 6.7
VAC voltage drop. With gap, the core will saturate at
voltages higher than 6.7 VAC.
It is recommended that the unit should be placed in a
horizontal position as the three single phase inductors
inside the enclosure are heavy.
Three single phase gapped inductors are used for a three
phase application. The photo and schematic of a inrush
current limiter are shown below.
The three gapped inductors are connected with
the circuit breakers for power source protection
The voltage drop across the current limiting inductor at
different current levels is shown in the Table below:
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
TYPES
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
Circuit Breakers:
Circuit breaker makes and breaks the circuit
under various conditions of current flow with
out being adversely affected by the arc which
is bound to occur during the process of
opening up of the contacts.
Arc is a flame of fire strikes between the
contacts of C.B due to the high temperature
rise caused by I2R losses and high potential
gradient.
 This arc needs to be extinguished as soon as
possible so as successful Interruption of the
fault current is achieved.
Methods of Arc extinction:
There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit
breakers viz.
1. High resistance method. 2. Low resistance or current zero
method
1. High resistance method. In this method, arc resistance is
made to increase with time so that current is reduced to a value
insufficient to maintain the arc. The principal disadvantage of
this method is that enormous energy is dissipated in the arc.
The resistance of the arc may be increased by :
(i) Lengthening the arc. The resistance of the arc is directly
proportional to its length. The length of the arc can be increased
by increasing the gap between contacts.
(ii) Cooling the arc. Cooling helps in the deionization of the
medium between the contacts. This increases the arc resistance.
Efficient cooling may be obtained by a gas blast directed along
the arc.
(iii) Reducing X-section of the arc. If the area of X-section of
the arc is reduced, the voltage necessary to maintain the arc is
increased. In other words, the resistance of the arc path is
increased. The cross-section of the arc can be reduced by
letting the arc pass through a narrow opening or by having
smaller area of contacts.

(iv) Splitting the arc. The resistance of the arc can be

increased by splitting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in
series. Each one of these arcs experiences the effect of
lengthening and cooling. The arc may be split by introducing
some conducting plates between the contacts.
2. Low resistance or Current zero method.
This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c. circuits
only. In this method, arc resistance is kept low until current
is zero where the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented
from restriking in spite of the rising voltage across the
contacts. All modern high power a.c. circuit breakers
employ this method for arc extinction.
In an a.c. system, current drops to zero after every half-
cycle. At every current zero, the arc extinguishes for a brief
moment. Now the medium between the contacts contains
ions and electrons so that it has small dielectric strength and
can be easily broken down by the rising contact voltage
known as restriking voltage. If such a breakdown does
occur, the arc will persist for another half cycle.
If immediately after current zero, the dielectric strength of the
medium between contacts is built up more rapidly than the
voltage across the contacts, the arc fails to restrike and the
current will be interrupted. The rapid increase of dielectric
strength of the medium near current zero can be achieved by :
(a) causing the ionized particles in the space between contacts
to recombine into neutral molecules.
(b) sweeping the ionized particles away and replacing them by
un-ionized particles.
Therefore, the real problem in a.c. arc interruption is to rapidly
deionize the medium between contacts as soon as the current
becomes zero so that the rising contact voltage or restriking
voltage cannot breakdown the space between contacts. The
de-ionization of the medium can be achieved by:
(i) lengthening of the gap. The dielectric strength of the
medium is proportional to the length
of the gap between contacts. Therefore, by opening the contacts
rapidly, higher dielectric strength of the medium can be achieved.
(ii) high pressure. If the pressure in the vicinity of the arc is
increased, the density of the particles constituting the discharge
also increases. The increased density of particles causes higher
rate of de-ionization and consequently the dielectric strength of
the medium between contacts is increased.
iii) cooling. Natural combination of ionized particles takes place
more rapidly if they are allowed to cool. Therefore, dielectric
strength of the medium between the contacts can be increased by
cooling the arc.
(iv) blast effect. If the ionized particles between the contacts are
swept away and replaced by unionized particles, the dielectric
strength of the medium can be increased considerably. This may
be achieved by a gas blast directed along the discharge or by
forcing oil into the contact space.
Rated Interrupting time of Circuit Breaker
1. OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers:
Plain Break Oil CBs: Arc Control Oil CBs:
2. AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
Axial-Blast CBs Cross-Blast CBs
3. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
4. VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:
HVDC Circuit Breaker:
A series resonant circuit with L and C is
connected across the main contacts M of
conventional ac circuit breaker through an auxiliary
contact S1 and resister R is connected through
contact S2. Under normal operating conditions, main
contact M and charging contacts S2 remain closed
and capacitor C is charged to line voltage through the
high resistance. Contacts S1 are open and have line
voltage across them. For interrupting main circuit
current Id, the operating mechanism opens contacts
S2 and closes contacts S1. This initiates discharge of
capacitance through inductance L, main contacts M
and auxiliary contacts S1 setting up an oscillatory
current. Thus artificial current zeroes are created and
the circuit breakers main contact M open. Thereafter,
contacts S1 are opened and contacts S2 are closed.
Resistance Switching:
SWITCHGEAR COMPONENTS:
(i) Bushings:
(ii) Circuit Breaker Contacts:
(a) Tulip type contacts:
Contacts continued
(b) Finger &Wedge contacts (c) Butt contacts
CIRCUIT BREAKER OPERATING
MECHANISM
CIRCUIT BREAKER OPERATING MECHANISM
Each circuit breaker is provided with an operating
mechanism to perform following functions:

I. To close the breaker contacts rapidly without hesitation at

all currents from zero to rated making current capacity.

II. To hold the breaker contacts together against the action

of powerful opening springs.

III. To open the breaker contacts without delay immediately

on receiving tripping signal.
 The small and low voltage circuit breakers are manually
operated while medium and large circuit breakers are
power operated either electrically or pneumatically.

The operating time between instant of receiving trip signal

and final contact separation is of the order of 1.5 cycles or
0.03 seconds in the modern EHV circuit breakers and for
slow circuit breakers employed in distribution systems it
may about 3 cycles or 0.06 seconds
 The mechanisms used for circuit breaker:

1. Spring
2. Solenoid
3. Compressed Air
1. Spring:
In spring controlled circuit breaker the spring is
precharged, i.e. compressed. The precharged may be
done by hand or a motor or by the closing mechanism.

If the system uses spring for both opening as well as

closing, the closing spring has a higher energy level and is
charged by motor-driven gears.

The two separate springs are employed, one for closing

the breaker and other for opening.

The force of the closing spring is utilized for closing the

breaker and also for charging the spring which is used for
opening.
2. Solenoid:
Solenoid closing is the most widely used method, the
solenoid being fed from battery, usually of 110 or 220V.
For Large circuit breakers, the current may be as high
as 600A at 110V dc.
With spring opening, the circuit breaker closing
mechanism compresses the spring and latches the
moving contacts in the closed position.
The tripping impulse then energies a small solenoid
that releases the latch and allows the spring to exert its
full force to open the contacts.
3. Compressed Air:
When compressed air enters the arc chamber and its
pressure exceeds the spring force, the contacts are
opened.

The contacts automatically come in the closed position

by the spring action when the supply of compressed air
stopped. Therefore, supply of the compressed air must
be maintained till the auxiliary circuit breaker switch is
opened.
 In EHV oil circuit breakers, compressed air is used for
closing and a spring is used for opening.

In air blast circuit breakers, compressed air is used for

both closing and opening. In some cases, the moving
contact is held in closed position by a spring.
 Characteristics of breaker mechanism:
Springs are very good for opening as their force is large in
the beginning and gradually decreases as the distance of
travel of the moving contact increases.

Solenoids are very good for closing. The force of attraction

increases when the distance between the contacts
decreases. They are not suitable for opening because they
are slow in action.

Compressed air is suitable for both closing as well as

opening as its force remains almost constant even when
the distance between the contacts increases or decreases.
 Characteristics of breaker operating mechanism

(a) Closing (b) Opening

Ratings of circuit Breaker:

D
Under fault conditions, a circuit breaker is required to perform the following three duties:

The contacts are separated AB and at this instant , the fault current has
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF
PROTECTIVE GEAR:
 FUSES:

Kit-Kat type
Blade type fuse
HRC Cartridge fuses

HRC Cartridge fuses Shutter stock fuses

Fuse:
Definition
A fuse is a short
piece of metal,
inserted in the
circuit, which
melts when
excessive current
flows through it
and thus breaks
the circuit. The greater is the current, the smaller is the
time taken by it to blow out. In other words, a fuse has
inverse time-current characteristics as shown in the fig.
Desirable characteristics of fuse
element:
(i) Low melting point e.g., tin, lead.

(ii) High conductivity e.g., silver, copper.

(iii) Free from deterioration due to oxidation e.g., silver.

(iv) Low cost e.g., copper.

 Important terminology of Fuse:
i. Current rating of
fuse element
ii. Fusing Current
iii. Fusing factor
iv. Prospective current
v. Cut off current
vi. Pre-arcing time
vii. arcing time
viii. Total operating time
ix. Breaking capacity
(i) The current rating of the fuse element:
It is the current which the fuse element can
normally carry without overheating or melting.

It depends upon the following:

(a) temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse
holder
(b) fuse material and
(c) the surroundings of the fuse.
 (ii) Fusing Current: It is the minimum current at
which the fuse element melts and thus disconnects the
circuit protected by it. Its value will be more than the
current rating of the fuse element . For round wire the
approximate relationship between fusing current I and
diameter d of the wire is
I = k d 3/2
where k is constant called
the fuse constant. Its
value depends upon the
metal of which the fuse
is made . Sir W.H.Preece
found different values of
k for materials as shown
in the table:
(iii) Fusing factor: It is the ratio of minimum fusing
current to the current rating of fuse element i.e.

Minimum fusing current

Fusing factor =
Current rating of fuse

Its value is always more than 1. The smaller the fusing

factor, the greater is the difficulty in avoiding
deterioration due to overheating and oxidation at rated
carrying current.
(iv) Prospective Current-
Definition:
It is the r.m.s value of the first loop of the fault current
obtained if the fuse is replaced by an ordinary
conductor of negligible resistance.

Or in other words:

The r.m.s value of the first loop of fault current is

known as prospective current.
(v) Cut-off current:
It is the maximum value of fault Current actually reached
before the fuse melts. The current corresponding to
point a is the cut-off current. The cut-off value depends
upon:

(a) current rating of fuse

(b) value of prospective current
(c) asymmetry of short-circuit current
(vi) Pre-arcing time:
It is the time between the commencement of fault and
the instant when cut-off occurs.

In other words:

it is the time from the start of the fault to the instant of

the initiation of the arc is known as pre-arcing time.
The pre-arcing time is generally small: a typical value
being 0.001 second.
(vii) Arcing time:
This is the time between the end of pre-arcing time
and the instant when the arc is extinguished.

(viii) Total operating time: It is the sum of

pre-arcing and arcing times. The operating time of the
fuse is 0.002 second.

(ix) Breaking capacity: It is the r.m.s value of a.c

Component of maximum prospective current that a
fuse can deal with at rated service voltage.
The current carrying capacity of the
fuse element:
 Types of fuses:
1. Low Voltage fuses
2. High Voltage fuses
1. Low Voltage fuses:
1. Semi-enclosed rewire-able fuse: (Kit-kat type)
It consists of (i) Fuse carrier
and (ii) a base
They are made up to 500 A rated current,
but their breaking capacity is low i.e. on
400 V service voltage, the breaking
capacity is about 4000 A. Accordingly
their use is limited to domestic and
lighting load.
 2. High-Rupturing capacity (H.R.C) cartridge fuse:
The primary snag of low and uncertain breaking capacity of semi-
enclosed rewire able fuses is overcome by H.R.C . Cartridge fuse.
Advantages:
(i) Capable of clearing high as well low fault
currents.
(ii) They do not deteriorate with age.
(iii) They have high speed of operation.
(iv) They provide reliable discrimination.
(v) They require no maintenance.
(vi) Cheaper than other circuit
interrupting devices.
(vii) They permit consistent
Disadvantages:
(i) To be replaced after each operation.
(ii) Heat caused by the arc affects associated Switches.
 3. H.R.C fuse with tripping device:
H.R.C cartridge fuse is provided with tripping device which on
blowing the fuse causes the circuit breaker to operate. The weak
link in series with tungsten wire gets fused and causes the
chemical charge to be detonated.
Advantages:
(i) To prevent single phasing all the three phases are
opened under single phase fault.
(ii) Effect of full short circuit current is avoided to select inexpensive
circuit breaker.
(iii) The CB deals with fairly small fault
current which avoids the necessity of
replacing the fuse except under highest
currents.
Range: Breaking capacities of 16,000A to
30,000A at 440 V.
2. High Voltage fuses:
High voltage circuits need HV fuses having high breaking
capacities with high currents. Some of the high voltage
fuses are:
(i) Cartridge type:
Though construction wise they are no different than LV
fuses, they have some special design features. Some
designs employ fuse elements wound in the form of helix
so as to avoid corona effects at higher voltages. On some
designs, there are two fuse elements in parallel; one of
low resistance (silver wire) and other of high resistance
(tungsten wire). Under normal load conditions the low
resistance elements carry the normal load current.
When fault occurs, the low resistance element is blown
out and high resistance element reduces the SC current
to finally break the circuit.
Operative range:
High voltage cartridge fuses are used up to 33 KV with
breaking Capacity of about 8700 A at that voltage.
Ratings of the order of 200 A at 6.6 KV and 11 KV and 50
A at 33 KV are also available.
(ii) Liquid Type: These fuses are filled with carbon
tetrachloride and have the widest range of application to
h.v. systems. They may be used for circuits up to about
100 A rated current on systems up to
132 KV and may have breaking capacities
of the order of 6100 A.
Difference between fuse and circuit
breaker:
Types of Protection: It is a usual practice to divide the
protection scheme into two classes viz. primary protection and
back-up protection.
(i) Primary Protection: It is
the protective scheme
designed to protect the
component parts of the
power system as shown
in the figure. Each line
has a relay which
protects the line. If a
fault occurs on any line,
it will be cleared by its
relay and circuit breaker. This forms the primary and first line of
defense. The service record of primary relaying is very high
with well over ninety percent of all operations being correct.
However, sometimes faults are not cleared by primary relay system
because of trouble with in the relay, wiring system or breaker.
Under such conditions, back up protection does the required job.
Back-up Protection: It is a second line of defense in case of
failure of the primary protection. It is designed to operate with
sufficient delay so that primary relaying will be given sufficient time
to function if it is able to. Accordingly from the above figure, relay A
provides back-up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault
is not cleared by relay and its breaker, the relay A on the group
breaker will operate after a definite time delay and clear the entire
group of lines. It is evident that when back up relaying functions, a
larger part is disconnected than when the primary relaying
functions correctly. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed
on the better maintenance of primary relaying.
ZONES OF PROTECTION:
Zones of Protection continued:
Zones of Protection continued:
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF
PROTECTIVE GEAR:
Relay: Definition
A relay is an automatic device which senses
abnormal condition of electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turn
close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil
circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped
for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy
circuit.
ZONES OF PROTECTION:
Fundamental requirements of
protective relaying:

minimum or no damage to the system. From the figure It may be seen that circuit
breakers are located in the connections to each power system element in order to make it
possible to disconnect only the faulty section. Thus, if the fault occurs at the bus bars on
the last zone, then only breakers nearest to the fault viz. 10, 11, 12 and 13 should open.
BASIC RELAYS:
In electrical power system most of the relays in service
are of electro-mechanical type. They work on the two
main operating principles:
(i) Electromagnetic attraction
(ii) Electromagnetic induction
1. Electromagnetic attraction
Relays:
(i) Attracted armature type relay: The minimum
current at which the relay armature is attracted to close
the trip circuit is called pick up current.
(ii) Solenoid type relay:
Under normal operating conditions, the
the current through the coil C is such that
it holds the plunger by gravity or spring in
the position shown. However on the
occurrence of the fault, the current
through the relay coil becomes
more than the pick up value,
causing the plunger to be
attracted to the solenoid. The
upward movement of the plunger
closes the trip circuit, thus opening the
circuit breaker and disconnecting the faulty circuit.
(iii) Balanced Beam Type Relay:
The figure shown on the right side is
RELAY TIMING:
An important characteristic of relay is its time of
operation. By the time of operation is meant
length of the time from the instant when the
actuating element is energized to the instant
when the relay contacts are closed. Sometimes
it is desirable and necessary to control the
operating time of a relay. For this purpose,
mechanical accessories are used with relays.
Overcurrent relay (Definition):
In an over current relay or o/c relay the
actuating quantity is only current. There is
only one current operated element in the
relay, no voltage coil etc. are required to
construct this protective relay.
Working Principle:
In an over current relay, there would be essentially
a current coil. When normal current flows through this
coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not
sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as
in this condition the restraining force is greater than
deflecting force. But when the current through the coil
increases, the magnetic effect increases, and after
certain level of current, the deflecting force generated
by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the
restraining force, as a result, the moving element starts
moving to change the contact position in the relay.
A typical overcurrent relay:
Types of Overcurrent Relay:
Depending upon time of operation, there are
various types of OC relays, such as,

Instantaneous over current relay.

Inverse time over current relay.
Inverse time delay over current relay.
Definite time lag over current relay.
(i) Instantaneous over current relay.
An instantaneous relay is one in which no intentional
time delay is provided. In this case, the relay contacts
are closed immediately after current in the relay coil
exceeds the minimum calibrated value.
The time of operation of instantaneous
relay is about less than 0.1 second.
(ii) Inverse time over current relay.
An inverse-time relay is one in which the
Operating time is approximately inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the
actuating quantity.
(a) Inverse-time-delay over current relay.
In an induction relay, the inverse-time delay can
be achieved by positioning the permanent
magnet (known as the drag magnet) in such a
way that the relay disc cuts the flux between the
poles of the magnet. When the disc moves,
current sets up in it produce a drag on the disc
which slows its motion.
(b) In other types of relays the inverse-time
delay can be introduced by oil dashpot or a
time-limit fuse.
Figs. (1) and (2) are the typical examples of inverse-time delay
relays

Fig. (1) Fig. (2)

(iii) Definite time lag over current relay.
In this type of relay, there is a definite time elapse
between the instant of pick-up and the closing of
contacts. This particular time setting is independent of
the amount of the current through the relay coil; being
the same for all values of current in excess of the
pickup value. It may be worthwhile to mention that
practically all inverse-time relays are also provided with
definite minimum time feature in order that the relay
may never become instantaneous in its action for very
long overloads.
Important terms of the Relay:
(i) Pick-up current: It is the minimum current in the
relay coil at which the relay starts to operate. In
other words when the relay coil current is equal
to or greater than the pick-up value, the relay
operates to energize the trip coil which opens the
circuit breaker.
(ii) It is often desirable to
adjust the relay to any
required value. This is known
as current setting and is usually achieved by the use
of tapings on the relay operating coil. The taps are
brought out to a plug bridge as shown.
The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns
on the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disc
and hence the time of operation of the relay. The
values assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of
percentage full-load rating of C.T. with which the
relay is associated and represents the value
above which the disc commences to rotate and
finally closes the trip circuit. Therefore
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T X Current setting

The current plug setting usually range from 50% to

200% in steps of 25% for over current relays and 10%
to 70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relays.
The desired current setting is obtained by inserting
Plug between the jaws of a bridge type socket at
the tap value required.
(iii) Plug-setting multiplier: It is the ratio of fault
current in the relay coil to the pick-up current i.e.
Fault current in relay coil
P.S.M =
Pickup current
Fault current in the relay coil
=
Rated secondary current of X current settting
(iv) Time setting multiplier: The relay is provided with
Control to adjust the time of operation. This
adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier. Time-
setting dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05s.
These figures are multipliers to be used to convert
The time derived from time/PSM curve in to the
actual operating time. Thus if the time
setting is 0.1and the time obtained is
From the time/P.S.M curve is 3 secs
then actual relay operating time 3X.1=
0.3 seconds. For instance, in an
Induction relay, the time of operation is controlled by
adjusting the amount of the travel of the disc from
its reset position to its pick-up position. This is
achieved by the adjustment of the position of the
moveable backstop which controls the travel of the
disc and thereby varies the time in which the relay will
close its contacts for given values of fault current. A
so called time-dial with an evenly divided scale
provides this adjustment. The actual time of
operation is calculated by multiplying the time
setting multiplier with the time obtained from
time/P.S.M curve of the relay.
Time/P.S.M curve:
Figure as shown gives the curve between
between time of operation and
plug setting multiplier of a
typical relay. The horizontal
scale is marked in terms of plug
setting multiplier and
represents number of times the relay current in
excess of the current setting. The vertical scale is
marked in terms of time required for relay operation.
If the P.S.M is 10, then the time of operation (from
the curve) is 3 seconds. The actual time of operation
is obtained by multiplying this time by the time
setting multiplier.
Calculation of Relay Operating Time:
Functional Relay Types:
Solenoid instantaneous and time delay relays:
 Induction overcurrent relay:
This type of relay works on the
induction principle and initiates
corrective measures when current
in the circuit exceeds the
predetermined value. The
actuating source is a current
supplied to the relay from a
current transformer. These
relays are used in a.c circuits
only and can operate for fault
current flow in either direction.
These relays are also called
magnitude relays.
Operation:
The driving torque on the aluminum disc is set up due
to the induction principle. This torque is opposed by
the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under
normal operating conditions, restraining torque is
greater than the driving torque produced by the relay
coil current. Therefore, the aluminum disc remains
stationary. However, if the current in the protected
section exceeds the pre-set value, the driving torque
becomes greater than the restraining torque.
Consequently the disc rotates and the moving contact
bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated
the pre-set angle. The trip circuit operates the circuit
breaker which isolates the faulty section.
Induction type directional Power relay:

This type of relay operates when power in the

circuit flows in a specific direction. A directional
power relay is so designed that it obtains its
operating torque by the interaction of the
magnetic fields derived from both voltage and
current sources of the circuit it protects. This
type of relay is essentially a wattmeter and
direction of the torque sets up depends upon
the direction of the current relative to the
voltage with which it is associated.
Constructional Details and
Operation:

The flux 1 due to the current

in the potential coil will be
nearly 90 degrees lagging behind
the applied voltage V. The 2 due
to current coil will be nearly in
phase with the operating current I.
The interaction of the fluxes 1 and 2 with
eddy currents induced in the disc produces a
driving torque given by:
Since
Induction type directional Over
Current Relay:
When a short circuit occurs,
the system voltage fall to a low
value and there may be
insufficient torque developed
in the relay to cause its
operation. This difficulty is
overcome in the directional
overcurrent relay which is
designed to be almost
independent of system voltage
and power factor.
Operation: Under normal
operating conditions, power
flows in the normal direction in
the circuit protected by the
relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the
overcurrent element (lower element) un-energized. However, when a
short circuit occurs, there is a tendency for a current or power to flow
in the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper
element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes
the circuit for overcurrent element. The disc of this element rotates
and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This
operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two
relay elements are so arranged that final tripping of the current
controlled by them is not made till the following conditions are
satisfied:
(i) Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional
element.
(ii) Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
(iii) Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time
setting of over current element.
Distance or Impedance Relays:
The group of relays in which operation is
governed by the ratio of applied voltage to
current in the protected circuit. Such relays are
called distance or impedance relays. In an
impedance relay, torque produced by a current
element is opposed by the torque produced by
voltage element. The relay will operate when
the ratio V/I is less than the predetermined
value. Such relays are also called ratio relays.
Principle of operation of the relay:

The voltage element of the relay is excited

through a potential transformer (P.T) from the
line to be protected. The current element of the
relay is excited from a current transformer (C.T)
in series with a line. Under normal operating
Conditions, the impedance of the protected
zone AB of the line is ZL. The relay is so designed
that it closes its contacts whenever impedance
of the protected section falls below the pre-
determined value i.e. ZL in this case.
Types of Distance or Impedance relays:
(i) Definite-distance relay-which operates
instantaneously for fault up to
predetermined distance from the relay.
(ii) Time-distance relay-in which a time of
operation is proportional to the distance of
fault from the relay point. A fault nearer to the
relay will operate it earlier than the fault
farther away from the relay.
DEFINITE-DISTANCE TYPE IMPEDANCE RELAY:

Principle of operation: Under normal operating

condition, the pull due to voltage element is
greater than that of current element. Therefore,
the relay contacts remain open. However, when
the fault occurs in the protected zone, the
applied voltage to the relay decreases whereas
the current increases. The ratio of voltage to
current (i.e. impedance) falls below the
the predetermined value. Therefore the pull of
the current element will exceed that due to the
voltage element and this causes the beam to tilt
in a direction to close the trip contacts. The pull
of the current element is proportional to 2 and
that of voltage element to 2 . Consequently the
relay will operate when
The values of constants k1 and k2 depend upon
the ampere-turns of two electromagnets. By
providing tapings on the coils, the setting value
of the relay can be changed.
Time-distance impedance relay:
A time-distance impedance
relay is one which automatically
adjusts its operating time
according to the distance of the
relay from the fault point i.e.
operating time,

Operation: Under normal load

conditions, the pull of the
armature is more than that of
induction element and hence the trip circuit contacts
remain open. However, on the occurrence of the
short circuit, the disc of the induction current
element starts to rotate at a speed depending upon
the operating current. As rotation of the disc
proceeds the spiral spring coupling is wound up till
the tension of the spring is sufficient to pull
armature away from the pole face of the voltage-
excited magnet.
Differential Relays:
A differential relay is one that operates when
the phaser difference of two or more similar
electrical quantities exceeds a predetermined
value. Thus a current differential relay is one
that compares the current entering a section of
the system with the current leaving the section.
under normal operating conditions two currents
are equal but as soon as fault occurs, this
condition no longer applies. The difference
between the incoming and outgoing currents
is arranged to flow through the operating coil
of the relay. If this differential current is equal
to or greater than the pick-up value, the relay
will operate and open the circuit breaker to
isolate the faulty section.
Current differential relay:
This differential
relay compares the
current at the two
ends of the
alternator winding.
Under normal
operating
conditions, suppose the alternator winding
carries a normal current of 1000 A. Then the
current in the two secondaries of CTs are equal.
These currents will merely circulate between the
two CTs and no current flow through the
differential relay. Therefore the relay remains
inoperative. If the ground fault occurs on the
alternator winding, the two secondary currents
will not be equal and the current flows through
the operating winding of the relay, causing the
relay to operate. The amount of current flows
through the relay will depend upon the way the
fault is being fed.
(i) If some current (500 A in this case) flows out
of one side a larger current (2000 A) enters the
other side then the difference of the CT
secondary current i.e. 10-2.5 = 7.5 A will flow
through the relay.
(ii) If current flows
to the fault from
both sides then sum
of secondary currents i.e. 10+5 = 15A will flow
through the relay.
Disadvantages
(i) The impedance of the pilot cables generally
causes a slight difference between the currents at
the two ends of the section to be protected. If the
relay is very sensitive, the small differential current
may cause it to operate.
(ii) Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect
operation of the relay when the large through-
current flows.
(iii) Accurate matching of current transformers can
not be achieved due to pilot circuit impedance.
Biased Beam Relay: The biased beam relay is also
called percentage differential relay.

It is designed to respond to the

differential current in terms of its
fractional relation to the current
flowing through the protected
section. It is essentially an over
current balanced beam relay
type with an additional relay coil.
The restraining coil produces a
bias force in the opposite
direction to the operating force.
When an internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias
force. Consequently, the trip contacts are closed to open the
circuit breaker.
The bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of turns on
the restraining coil.
The differential current in the
relay coil is proportional to i2 i1
and the equivalent current in the
restraining coil is proportional to
(i1+ i2 )/2 since the operating coil
is connected to the
mid-point of the restraining coil. It is clear that greater the current
flowing through the restraining coil, the higher the value of current
required in the operating winding to trip the relay. Thus under heavy
load, a greater differential current through the relay operating coil is
required for the operation than under light load conditions. The relay
is called the percentage relay because the operating current required
to trip can be expressed as percentage of load current.
This is designed to response to the differential current in the term of its fractional
relation to the current flowing through the protected section. In this type of relay,
there are restraining coils in addition to the operating coil of the relay. The restraining
coils produce torque opposite to the operating torque. Under normal and through
fault conditions, restraining torque is greater than operating torque. Thereby relay
remains inactive. When internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias
force and hence the relay is operated. This bias force can be adjusted by varying the
number of turns on the restraining coils. As shown in the figure below, if I1 is the
secondary current of CT1 and I2 is the secondary current of CT2 then current through
the operating coil is I1 - I2 and current through the restraining coil is (I1+ I2)/2. In
normal and through fault condition, torque produced by restraining coils due to
current (I1+ I2)/2 is greater than torque produced by operating coil due to current I1- I2
but in internal faulty condition these become opposite. And the bias setting is defined
as the ratio of (I1- I2) to (I1+ I2)/2
In this scheme of protection, two
similar current transformers are
connected at either end of the
element to be protected by means
of pilot wire. The secondaries of the
current transformers are connected in series in such a way that
under normal conditions, their induced e.m.fs are in opposition.
Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1= I2) flow in both
primary windings. Therefore, the secondary voltages of the two
transformers are balanced against each other and no current will
flow through the relay operating coil. When a fault occurs in the
protected zone, current in the two primaries will differ from one
another (i.e. I1 I2) and their secondary voltages will no longer be
in balance. This voltage difference will cause a current to flow
through the operating coil of the relay which closes the trip coil.
Translay System:
Protection of transformers:
Protection systems for transformers:
Earth fault or Leakage Protection:

the figure below.

Combined Leakage and Overcurrent
Protection:

Operation: Figure shows the schematic ar-

Applying Merz-Price Circulating Scheme to the
Transformer:
Merz-Price Circulating-Current principle is commonly used for the protection of power
transformers against earth and phase faults. The system as applied to transformers is
fundamentally the same as that for generators but with certain complicating features
not encountered in the generator application. The complicating features and remedial
measured are briefed below.
Buchholz relay:
Buchholz relay is gas actuated relay installed in
oil immersed transformer for protection against
all kinds of faults. It is used to give an alarm in
case of incipient (i.e. slow developing) faults in
the transformer and to disconnect the
transformer from the supply in the event of
severe internal faults. It is universal practice to
use Buchholz relays on all such oil immersed
transformers having ratings in excess of 750
KVA.
Construction and operation:
Advantages:
(i) It is the simplest form of transformer
protection.
(ii) It detects the incipient faults at a stage much
earlier than is possible with other forms of
protection.
Disadvantages:
(i) It can only be used with oil immersed
transformers equipped with conservator tanks.
(ii) The device can detect only faults below oil
level in the transformer. Therefore separate
protection is needed for connecting cables.
Protection of Alternators:
Differential Protection of Alternators:
The stator winding of an alternator may develop
fault such as short circuit between the phases or
short circuit between one or more phases and
earth. For protection of alternator against such
faults Merz Price Circulating current Protection
is used. This works on the following principle.
When alternator is in healthy condition the
currents in the secondary/secondaries of
current transformers CT1 and CT2 are identical
and the relay coils carry no current. If there is an
Figure without compensating
resistances

The circuit of above figure in

the simpler form
Figure with compensating resistances
earth fault on one of the phases of the alternator
as shown, the secondary current in CT1 will
evidently be greater than in CT2. The difference
in secondary currents of CT1 and CT2 will now
flow through the relay coil and thus energizing
the same will cause tripping of the circuit
breaker of the alternator. The relay will not
operate if the fault is outside the zone of
protection. The compensating resistances are
used to equalize the resistance of pilot wires so
that relays are connected to equipotential points
in the pilot wire.
Calculation of percentage winding
unprotected:
Let the primary out of phase balance current
required for relay operation be i amperes. Also,
Let I = full load current of alternator
V= line to line voltage of alternator
R= ohmic value of neutral earthing resistance
Hence Voltage/Phase = V/3
To provide an out of phase balance current i
amperes fault voltage required = iR volts
Therefore % of winding not capable of producing
a voltage high enough to operate the relay will
equal to
100 3
=( ) 100
/3
This is the percentage of winding unprotected
from the neutral side.
Note: Here we have assumed that impedance of
alternator winding is negligible. If it is
appreciable in comparison with R then total
impedance value of the winding plus earthing
resistance should be taken instead of R in the
above formula.
Balanced Earth-fault Protection:
Ground Fault Protection:
Bus bar Protection:
(i) Differential Protection Scheme:
When a fault occurs, the fault current
upsets the balance and produces a
differential current to operate a relay.
(ii) Fault bus protection
Scheme: It is possible to design a
station so that the faults that develop are
mostly earth-faults. For that every
conductor of the bus must be
surrounded by earthed metal barrier
known as fault bus. With this every fault
that might occur must involve a
connection between a conductor and an earthed metal part. By directing the
flow of earth-fault current, it is possible to detect the faults and determine their
location. A fault involving a connection between a conductor and earthed
supporting structure will result in current flow to ground through the fault bus,
causing the relay to operate. The operation of the relay will trip all breakers
connecting equipment to the bus.
Protection of lines:
Time-graded Over Current Protection:
(i) Using definite time relays
(ii) Using Inverse time relays:
Figure

The three relays at A, B and C are assumed to have inverse-time

characteristics. The fault in section BC will give relay times which will allow
breaker B to trip out before the breaker A.
 The protection of this system as shown in the figure requires that:

at A and P should open to clear the fault whereas feeder 2 should

remain intact to maintain the continuity of supply. In fact, the above arrangement accomplishes
this job. The shown fault is fed via two routes: (a) directly from feeder 1 via the relay A (b) from
feeder 2 via B,Q, substation and P. Therefore power flow in relay Q will be in normal direction
but is reversed in relay P. This causes the opening of CB at P. Also the relay will operate while
relay B remains inoperative. It is because these relays have inverse-time characteristics the
current flowing in relay A is in excess of that flowing in relay B. In this way only faulty feeder is
In order that only faulty section of the ring is isolated under fault conditions, the types of
relays and their time settings should be as follows:
Suppose short circuit occurs at the point as shown in the figure. In order to ensure
selectivity it is desired that only circuit breakers at E and F should open to clear the fault
whereas other sections of the ring should be intact to maintain continuity of supply. In fact
the above arrangement accomplishes this job. The power will be fed to the fault via two
routes viz
(i) from G around S1 and S2 and
Causes of Over-voltages:
Voltage Surge:

Figure shows a typical waveform of

lightning surge. The voltage build-up is
taken along y-axis and time along x-axis. It
may be seen that lightning introduces a
steep-fronted wave. The steeper the wave-
front, the more rapid is the build-up of
voltage at any point in the network. In most
of the cases, this build-up is comparatively
rapid, being of the order of 1-5s. Voltage
surges are generally specified in terms of
rise time t1 and the time t2 to decay to half
of the peak value. For example, a 1/50s surge is one which reaches its maximum value in
1s and decays to half of its peak value in 50s.
produces high transient voltage across the breaker contacts.
Indirect strokes result from electrostatically induced charges due to the presence of
charged clouds.
Rod-gap Arrestor:
Horn-gap Arrester:
Multi-gap Arrester:
Expulsion type arrester:

They are not very expensive

They are improved from rod-

gap arresters as they block
the flow of power frequency
follow current.
They can be easily installed
Valve type arresters:
Surge Absorber:

Figure shows how a capacitor acts as surge absorber to protect

the transformer winding. Since the reactance of a condenser is
inversely proportional to frequency, it will be low at high
frequency and high at low frequency. Since the surges are of
high frequency, the capacitor acts as a short circuit and passes
them directly to earth. However, for power frequency, the
reactance of the capacitor is very high and practically no
current flows to the ground.

(ii) Another type of surge absorber consists of a parallel combination of choke and resistance
connected in series with the line as shown. The choke offers high reactance to surge
frequencies (X L = 2 f l). The surges are therefore forced to flow through the resistance R
where they are dissipated.
(iii) Figure shows another type of surge absorber called Ferranti surge absorber. It consists
of an air-cored inductor connected in series with the line. The insulator is surrounded by
but insulated from an earthed metallic sheet called dissipater. This arrangement is
equivalent to a transformer with short-circuited secondary. The inductor forms the
primary whereas the dissipater forms the short-circuited secondary. The energy of the
surge is used up in the form of heat generated in the dissipater due to transformer action.
This type of surge absorber is mainly used for the protection of the transformer.

Figure (i) shows the schematic diagram 66 KV Ferranti surge absorber while figure (ii) shows
its equivalent circuit.
Finding the Direction in Directional Overcurrent
Relays
We will start with a simple transmission line with the source on the
left and a load on the right. The current flows into the polarity mark
of the CT on Breaker 3, and into the Directional Overcurrent (67)
Relay using the same direction. Any current flowing into the
polarity mark is considered to be the forward direction
The phasor diagram for this situation might look like the
following. Every load is a combination of resistance and
inductance, so the normal operating range for this line is
the green shaded region when the current flows into
Circuit Breaker 3.
Lets look at what the Directional Overcurrent (67) relay
connected to Circuit Breaker 4 sees under the same
conditions. This relay is designed to protect the same
transmission line from the other direction. The current enters
the non-polarity mark of the CT, and the relay determines
that current is leaving the transmission line; or the reverse
direction.
The phasor diagram of a meter test on the Directional
Overcurrent (67) relay connected to Circuit Breaker 4 would
look like the following. The current is flowing in the reverse
direction and the orange/red shaded area displays the normal
region when the current flows into a load behind the relay.
If we reversed the source and load, you could swap the
phasor diagrams above for each relay. Lets shake things
up by closing Circuit Breaker 8 and applying a Phase A-
to-Ground fault 50% down the line. This is a fault, so:
The faulted voltage should drop in proportion to the
severity of the fault
The fault current should be significantly larger than the
normal load current.
The fault current should lag the voltage by 40-89.9
degrees depending on the line characteristics, voltage,
and severity of the fault.
The non-faulted phases should stay relatively the same
Both fault currents flow into the transmission line, so the
directional overcurrent relays connected to Circuit Breakers
3 and 4 will see the current in the forward direction because
the current flows into both CT polarity marks.
If we pretend that the fault is exactly 50% down the line, both
sources are identical, and the impedance between the sources and
the fault are also identical, we can use the same phasor diagram for
both relays. Obviously this wont be true in the real world and the
current magnitudes would be different. The typical region for a fault
in the forward direction occurs in the green shaded area for both
relays.
Now lets look at a fault that is not on the transmission line.
The fault current flows into the polarity mark of the CT
connected to Circuit Breaker 3, so the Directional Overcurrent
(67) relay sees the fault in the forward direction. If the fault
current is larger than the overcurrent setting, the relay will trip.
Directional overcurrent protection schemes were
replaced with line impedance relays (21) to prevent a
situation like this from occurring. This relays primary
purpose is to trip for faults on the transmission line, not
for faults somewhere else on the system, as would
happen here. A line impedance relay would recognize
that the fault was not on the transmission line and
ignore this fault unless it was programmed to also
provide backup protection with a significant time delay.
The fault current flows into the non-polarity mark of the CT
connected to Circuit Breaker 4, so the Directional Overcurrent
(67) relay sees the fault in the reverse direction. The
orange/red shaded region indicates the typical region for a
fault behind a relay.
Overcurrent directional relays can be set to trip for faults
in the forward direction, which will protect the equipment
in front of the relay. Or they can also be set to trip for
faults behind the relay in the reverse direction. Forward
and reverse are typically determined by the normal flow of
current into the relay, so be sure to confirm the CT
connections before you make any assumptions.