Chapter 3

Measurement and Data

 Quantitative Paradigm
an inquiry into a social or human problem
based on testing a theory composed of
variables, measured with numbers, and
analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to
determine whether the predictive
generalizations of the theory hold true.
(Creswell, J. Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Sage:
1994.)
"a formal, objective, systematic process in
which numerical data are utilized to obtain
information about the world"
(Burns & Grove, as cited by Cormack, 1991, p. 140).
 Characteristics of
Quantitative Studies
Quantitative research is about quantifying the
relationships between variables.
We measure them, and
construct statistical models to explain what we
observed.
The researcher knows in advance what he or she
is looking for.
Goal: Prediction, control, confirmation, test
hypotheses.
 Quantitative Research
Quantity is the unit of analysis
Amounts
Frequencies
Degrees
Values
Intensity
Uses statistics for greater precision and objectivity
Based on the deductive model
 Characteristics of Quantitative Studies

All aspects of the study are carefully designed

before data are collected.
Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive
-- it tests theory. This is in contrast to most
qualitative research which tends to be inductive
--- it generates theory
The researcher tends to remain objectively
separated from the subject matter.
 Measurement Fundamentals
A key difference is that normal science deals with
concepts that are well defined and to great extent
standardized measures (e.g. speed, distance,
volume, weight, size, etc.)
On the contrary the social science often uses
concepts that are ill defined and therefore the
standardization in terms of how it is measured
varies or there is little agreement (e.g. social
class, development, poverty, etc.)
Statistics cannot be used until we understand the
the fundamental nature of measurement
(McNabb)
 Measurement

Measurement We can measure temperature,

pollution, literacy level etc.
Emotions, motivation, employee job satisfaction,
consumer loyalty etc. is difficult to be measured.
The research studies are mainly concerned with
above mentioned factors.
Measurement means assigning numbers or other
symbols to the observations.
 Measurement

The process of measurement involves devising a

scale in the range & transforming the properties of
objects from the domain scale in to suitable scale
for calculation.
The measurement can be done by assigning some
score such as-
- High-Medium-Low
- Satisfied-Dissatisfied
- Poor-Average-Good etc.
 Measurement
Such measurement helps us to obtain numbers or
categories for the variables.
There are various means by which the scores or
numbers can be assigned to the observations or
variables.
The data collected should be reliable & valid.
Hence the research should go for the validity &
reliability of the data.
 Criteria for Good Measurement
Reliability Reliability is the degree to which
measurements are devoid of error and therefore
in the position to yield consistent results, also
over repeated attempts over time (ordinal
measures always yield the same order, interval
measurements always yield the same order and
same distance between the measured items)
 Criteria for Good Measurement

Validity Validity is the ability of a scale or

measuring instrument to measure what it is
intended to measure (e.g. is absenteeism from
work a valid measure of job dissatisfaction or are
there other influences like a flu epidemic which is
keeping employees from work)
 Criteria for Good Measurement
Sensitivity Sensitivity is the ability of a
measurement instrument to accurately measure
variability in stimuli or responses (e.g. on a scale,
the choices very strongly agree, strongly agree,
agree, dont agree offer more choices than a
scale with just two choices - agree and dont
agree and is thus more sensitive)
 Reliability & Validity

The numbers assigned to the observations some

times do not give expected outcome.
Hence to judge the quality of the measures on two
dimensions-
1)Reliability
2)Validity
 Sources of Errors in Measurement
Measurement in research is never fully precise & objective.
Any measurement has some error.
Any scientific study aims at, minimizing the sum total of
possible sources of errors in the measurement.
There are following possible sources of errors in the
measurement.
1) Instrument
2) Interviewer
3) Situation
4) Respondent.
 1) Instrument

If the measuring instrument is defective, error is about to

occur.
The use of ambiguous words,
- Complex sentences,
- Faulty sequences of questions,
- Poor quality of questionnaire,
- Poor selection of respondents,
- Too many questions in questionnaire
result in measurement error.
 1) Instrument

Inappropriate data collection, is another source of

error.
Ex- In telephonic interview, that expects the
respondents to answer about 50 questions on the
aspect such as food habits, smoking habits, etc.
All without the respondents, only hearing the voice of
interviewer, is bound to be aborted prematurely.
 2) Interviewer
Interviewer is another source of error.
He may rephrase certain questions, may be due to his-
- Body language
- Facial Expressions etc.
may suggest certain kind of answers.
If the researcher changes the sequence of questions & expose
the interview to certain sections of the instrument prior to that
of desire time.
He may code the responses incorrectly or partially
Some errors may come in at the time of data processing,
statistical analysis stage etc.
 3) Situation

The situation, physical setting, timing, occassion,

presence of other individual along with the respondents
etc. may affect the responses.
Ex.- A teenager will not give the right kind of responses to
the questions on smoking habits, being with his elder
family members.
During telephonic interview, surrounding noise or other
distractions may divert the respondent from his
responses.
 4) Respondent

The respondent may have little knowledge about

the subject matter of study, but might pretend to
have.
He may be reluctant to sound out of confirmity
with existing norms.
He may guess the right answers
Factors like fatigue, boredroom, anxiety etc. may
affects his responses.
 Scaling

A scale is a set of categories to differentiate among

the study units (like people, organizations,
households, countries, societies etc.) on any one
variable.
Scaling describes the procedure of assigning these
categories or numbers or scores.
Scaling thus attempts to determine quantitative
measures of subjective abstract concepts.
 Scaling Definition

Scaling is the procedure of the assignment of

numbers or other symbols to a property of objects
in order to import some charecteristics of numbers
to the properties in questions.
Nominal
NominalScales
Scales

Ordinal
OrdinalScales
Scales

Interval
IntervalScales
Scales

Ratio
RatioScales
Scales
 Measurement of Scales
Following are the 4 different scales of measurements-
1) Nominal Scale
2) Ordinal Scale
3) Interval Scale
4) Ratio Scale
- The sophistication increases from the nominal to ratio scale
- The researcher in physical sciences have the advantage of
using the ratio scales, but this is seldom the case in
behavioral science.
 Nominal Scale
It is the simplest & most widely used scale
It involves assigning numbers or symbols to the events in
order to label them.
Ex- In a classroom, the role numbers assigned to students
- In football team, the T-Shirts carries different numbers
These numbers assigned are just for the convinience ,
they do not have any quantitaive value for the study.
These numbers are of no use to the researcher, as we can
not average the numbers or calculate the mean, median
or mode.
 Nominal Scale

We can just count the members & differentiate them

from each other.
Thus the nominal scale provides a convinient way of
keeping track record of people, objects & events.
So nominal scale is the least powerful level of
measurement.
But still it is very useful & widely used in surveys &
other ex-post-facto research, when the data is being
classified by major sub-groups of the population.
 Nominal
Nominal scales
scales focus
focus on
on only
only requiring
requiring aa
respondent
respondent to
to provide
provide some
some type
type of
of
descriptor
descriptor as
as the
the raw
raw response
response

Example.
Please indicate your current martial status.
__Married __ Single __ Single, never married __ Widowed

Nominal (3 not > 2)

 Nominal Scale
Classifies data according to a
category only.
E.g., which color people
select.
Colors differ qualitatively not
quantitatively.
A number could be assigned
to each color, but it would not
have any value.
The number serves only to
identify the color.
No assumptions are made
that any color has more or less
value than any other color.
 Nominal Scale

Assign subjects to groups or categories

Mutually exclusive
Collectively exhaustive

No order or distance relationship

Only count numbers in categories
Only present percentages of categories
 Other Examples
Gender Social status
Marital status Days of the week (months)
Geographic location Ethnic Group
Types of restaurants
Brand choice Religion
Job Type: Executive, Technical, Clerical

Coded as 1 Coded as 2
 Nominal Scale

Which of the following media influences your purchasing decisions the

most?
1 Television
2 Radio
3 Newspapers
4 Magazines
 Ordinal Scale

The ordinal scale contains, categories that can be

ordered by Rank on continuum.
These are thus can be called as Ranking scale
Unlike the nominal scale, here the numbers carries
the arrithmetic meaning s/a-
- High or Low,
- More or Less
 Ordinal Scale
Here in, the ordinal scale deals with 3 relations-
- Greater than,
- Lesser than or
- Equal to
It is not concerned with how much greater than or how
much lesser than.
 Ordinal
Ordinal scales
scales allow
allow the
the respondent
respondent to
to
express
express relative
relative magnitude
magnitude between
between the
the raw
raw
responses
responses toto aa question
question
Example.
Which one statement best describes your opinion of an Intel
PC processor?
__ Higher than AMDs PC processor
__ About the same as AMDs PC processor
__ Lower than AMDs PC processor

Ordinal (3 > 2, but 3-2 not = 2-1)

 Interval Scale

In interveal scales the data for the variables is collected

in the form of ranges having equal intervals.
Ex.- Q- How much monthly salary do you get
10k-15k, 15k-20k, 20k-25k, 25k-30k
In the interval scales, the numbers attached to the
variables, imply not only that the next number is higher
than the earlier but also carries equal value difference.
In above example, 15k is greater than 10k & 25k is
greater than 20k & the value of difference is equal i.e.
5k.
 Interval Scale

Hence the interval scale has the power determining

equality of differences.
The interval scale incorporates the concept of equality
of intervals.
The numbers on the interval scale can be added or
substracted as- 20k-15k = 30k-25k
Absolute Zero value is not available in interval scale
 Interval
Interval scales
scales demonstrate
demonstrate the
the absolute
absolute
differences
differences between
between each
each scale
scale point
point

Example.
How likely are you to recommend Amazon app to a friend?
Definitely will not Definitely will
123456

Interval (3-2 = 2-1)

 Interval Scale
assumes that the measurements are
made in equal units.
i.e. gaps between whole numbers on the
scale are equal.
e.g. Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature
scales
an interval scale does not have to have a
true zero. e.g. A temperature of "zero" does
not mean that there is no temperature...it is
just an arbitrary zero point.
Permissible statistics: count/frequencies,
mode, median, mean, standard deviation
 Interval Scale
How likely are you going to buy a new automobile within the next six
months? (Please check the most appropriate category)

Definitely will not buy ___ 1

Probably will not buy ___ 2
May or may not buy ___ 3
Probably will buy ___ 4
Definitely will buy ___ 5
 Ratio Scale

Unlike interval scale, the ratio scale has an

absolute or true Zero of measurement
Means, a Zero can be used in this type of scale.
Ex.- 0 gm. means- absolute no weight
0 cm. Means- no height or width.
 Ratio Scale

The ratio scale can be used to measure the mistakes

made by a typist, after typing a page script.
The interpretation can be made as- X persons typing
performnance is twice better as that of Y person.
The ratio involved in this type of scale is significant & it
facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in
terval scale.
All statistical techniques can be applied for the ratio
scale
 Primary Scales of Measurement

Nominal Numbers
Assigned 4 81 9

to Runners

Ordinal Rank Order of

Winners

Third Second First

Place Place Place

Interval Performance
Rating on a 0 8.2 9.1 9.6
to 10 Scale

Ratio Time to Finish in

Seconds 15.2 14.1 13.4
 Comparison of Measurement
Scales
Label Order Distance Origin

Nominal scale Yes No No No

Ordinal scale Yes Yes No No

Interval scale Yes Yes Yes No

Ratio scale Yes Yes Yes Yes