Mata kuliah : Seismology

Dr.Sc. Yayu Indriati Arifin, M.Si

Sumber :Seth Stein, Northwestern
 TOPIK

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Reference
WhatisSeismology?
Seismologiadalahstuditentanggelombangelastisdi
solidearth..
Teorigelombangseismik,observasidankesimpulan
merupakankomponenkuncidariseismologimodern.
Seismologidimotivasiolehkemampuankitamerekam
gerakandarat(groundmotion)yangdisebabkanoleh
berlalunyagelombangseismik
HistoryOfSeismology
INTEGRATE
COMPLEMENTARY
TECHNIQUES TO
STUDY
LITHOSPHERIC
DEFORMATION

Each have
strengths &
weaknesses
Important to
understand what
can & cant do
Jointly give
valuable insight
Introduction
Earthquakes: fundamental concepts & focal
mechanisms
Earthquakes: waveform modeling, moment tensors &
source parameters
Tectonic geodesy
Earthquake recurrence & hazards
Plate tectonics, relative plate motions
Absolute plate motions
Spreading centers, Subduction zones & driving forces
Plate boundary zones & changes in plate motions
Plate interiors
Faulting & deformation in the lithosphere
 Class notes:
http://www.earth.northwestern.edu/people/seth/324
Most material from
Stein, S. and M. Wysession, Introduction to Seismology,
Earthquakes, and Earth Structure, Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
 Studying the lithosphere involves integrating plate
tectonics, seismology, geodesy, geology, rock
mechanics, thermal studies, modeling and much more

No clear dividing lines between subfields

When we try to pick out anything by itself, we find it

hitched to everything else in the universe.
John Muir

Half of what we will teach you in the next few years is wrong. The
problem is we dont know which half

Medical school dean to incoming students

 EARTHQUAKES &
Locations map
TECTONICS
plate boundary
zones & regions
of intraplate
deformation
even in
underwater or
remote areas 36 mm/yr NORTH
AMERICA
Focal
mechanisms
show strain
field PACIFIC
Slip & seismic
history show
deformation
rate
Depths
constrain San Andreas Fault, Carrizo
thermo- Plain
PLATE KINEMATICS, directions and
rates of plate motions
Can observe directly
Primary constraint on lithospheric
processes

PLATE DYNAMICS, forces

causing plate motions
Harder to observe directly
Observe indirect effects (seismic
velocity, gravity, etc)
Studied via models
Closely tied to mantle dynamics
Kinematics primary constraint on
models
 EARTHQUAKES &
SOCIETY
In general, the most destructive
earthquakes occur where large
populations live near plate boundaries.
The highest property losses occur in
developed nations where more property
is at risk, whereas fatalities are highest
in developing nations.

Estimates are that the 1990 Northern

Iran shock killed 40,000 people, and that
the 1988 Spitak (Armenia) earthquake
killed 25,000. Even in Japan, where
modern construction practices reduce
earthquake damage, the 1995 Kobe
earthquake caused more than 5,000
deaths and $100 billion of damage. On
average during the past century
earthquakes have caused about 11,500
deaths per year.

The earthquake risk in the United States

is much less than in many other
Hazard is the intrinsic natural NATURAL
occurrence of earthquakes and the
DISASTERS:
resulting ground motion and other
effects. HAZARDS
AND RISKS
Risk is the danger the hazard poses to
life and property.

Although the hazard is an unavoidable

geological fact, risk is affected by
human actions.

Areas of high hazard can have low risk

because few people live there, and areas
of modest hazard can have high risk due
to large populations and poor
construction.

Earthquake risks can be reduced by

human actions, whereas hazards cannot

Bam, Iran earthquake: M 6.5 30,000

deaths
San Simeon, Ca earthquake: M6.5 2
 Earthquake locations map narrow plate boundaries,
broad plate boundary zones & regions of intraplate
deformation even in underwater or remote areas

DIFFUSE BOUNDARY
ZONES

INTRAPLATE

NARROW
BOUNDARIES
Stein & Wysession, 2003
 BASIC
CONCEPTS:
KINEMATICS
CONTROL
BOUNDARY
NATURE
S&W
5.1-4

Direction of relative motion between plates at a point on their boundary determines

the nature of the boundary.

At spreading centers both plates move Arabia

away from boundary
4 mm/yr
At subduction zones subducting plate
Sinai
moves toward boundary

At transforms, relative plate motion

parallel to boundary

Real boundaries often combine Transtension - Dead Sea

aspects (transpression, transtension) transform
 NOMENCLATURE:

Boundaries are described either as

- midocean-ridges and trenches, emphasizing morphology

- or as divergent (spreading centers) and convergent (subduction zones),

emphasizing kinematics

Latter nomenclature is more precise

because there are

- elevated features in ocean basins

that are not spreading ridges

- spreading centers like the

East African rift within continents

-continental convergent zones like

the Himalaya may not have active
subduction

- etc
 EULER VECTOR
Relative motion between two rigid plates on the spherical earth can be
described as a rotation about an Euler pole

At a point r along the boundary

between two plates, with latitude
and longitude , the linear
velocity of plate j with respect to
plate i , v ji , is given by the Linear velocity

vector cross product

v ji = j i x r
r
r is the position vector to the
point on the boundary

j i is the angular velocity vector

or Euler vector described by its

magnitude (rotation rate) |j i | Stein & Wysession, 2003

and pole (surface position) (, )

Direction of relative motion is a small circle
about the Euler pole 21
2 wrt 1
First plate ( j) moves counterclockwise ( right
handed sense) about pole with respect to
second plate (i).

Boundary segments with relative motion

parallel to the boundary are transforms, small
circles about the pole

Segments with relative motion away from the

boundary are spreading centers

Segments with relative motion toward

boundary are subduction zones 12
1 wrt 2

Magnitude (rate) of relative motion increases

with distance from pole because
|v ji | = |j i | | r | sin , where is the angle
between pole and site

All points on a boundary have the same

angular velocity, but the magnitude of linear
velocity varies from zero at the pole to a
maximum 90 away. Stein & Wysession, 2003
CONVERGENCE - BOUNDARY TYPE
ALEUTIAN TRENCH
54 mm/yr CHANGES WITH
ORIENTATION
PACIFIC -
NORTH AMERICA

PACIFIC wrt
STRIKE SLIP - NORTH
SAN ANDREAS AMERICA
pole

EXTENSION -
GULF OF CALIFORNIA

Stein & Wysession, 2003 5.2-3

SAN ANDREAS FAULT NEAR SAN
FRANCISCO
Type example of transform on land
1989 LOMA PRIETA, CALIFORNIA EARTHQUAKE
MAGNITUDE 7.1 ON THE SAN ANDREAS

Davidson et al
1989 LOMA PRIETA,
CALIFORNIA
EARTHQUAKE

The two level Nimitz

freeway collapsed
along
a 1.5 km section in
Oakland, crushing
cars

Freeway had been

scheduled for
retrofit to improve
earthquake
resistance
 1989 LOMA PRIETA,
CALIFORNIA
EARTHQUAKE

Houses collapsed in
the Marina district of
San Francisco

Shaking amplified by
low velocity landfill

Stein & Wysession 2003 2.4-10

 TRENCH-NORMAL
1964 ALASKA CONVERGENCE -
EARTHQUAKE ALEUTIAN TRENCH
Ms 8.4 Mw 9.1 54 mm/yr

Pacific subduction PACIFIC NORTH AMERICA

beneath North
America

~ 7 m of slip on 500x300
km2 of Aleutian Trench

Second or third largest

earthquake recorded to QuickTime and a
date YUV420 codec decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

~ 130 deaths

Catalyzed idea that great

thrust fault earthquakes
result from slip on
subduction zone plate
interface
1971 Ms 6.6 SAN
FERNANDO
EARTHQUAKE
1.4 m slip on 20x14
km2 fault
Thrust faulting
from compression
across Los Angeles
Basin
Fault had not been
previously
recognized
65 deaths, in part
due to structural
failure
Prompted
improvements in
building code &
hazard mapping
Los Angeles Basin
Thrust
earthquakes
indicate
shortening
1994 Northridge
Ms 6.7

Caused some of the highest ground accelerations

ever recorded. It illustrates that even a moderate
magnitude earthquake can do considerable
damage in a populated area. Although the loss of
life (58 deaths) was small due to earthquake-
resistant construction the $20B damage makes it
AFTTERSHOCKS the most costly earthquake to date in the U.S.

S&W 4.5-9
 ELASTIC REBOUND OR SEISMIC CYCLE MODEL

Materials at distance on
opposite sides of the
fault move relative to
each other, but friction
on the fault "locks" it
and prevents slip

Eventually strain
accumulated is more
than the rocks on the
fault can withstand, and
the fault slips in
earthquake

Earthquake reflects
regional deformation

S&W 4.1-3
 ELASTIC REBOUND OR SEISMIC CYCLE MODEL

Earthquakes are most dramatic part of a seismic cycle occuring on segments of

the plate boundary over 100s to 1000s of years.

During interseismic stage, most of the cycle, steady motion occurs away from
fault but fault is "locked", though some aseismic creep can occur on it.

Immediately prior to rupture is a preseismic stage, that can be associated with

small earthquakes (foreshocks) or other possible precursory effects.

Earthquake itself is coseismic phase, during which rapid motion on fault

generates seismic waves. During these few seconds, meters of slip on fault
"catch up" with the few mm/yr of motion that occurred over 100s of years away
from fault.

Finally, postseismic phase occurs after earthquake, and aftershocks and

transient afterslip occur for a period of years before fault settles into its steady
interseismic behavior again.
 1906 SAN FRANCISCO
Boore, 1977
EARTHQUAKE (magnitude 7.8)

~ 4 m of slip on 450 km of San

Andreas ~2500 deaths, ~28,000
buildings destroyed (most by fire)

Catalyzed ideas about relation of

earthquakes & surface faults

QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

S&W 4.1-
2
SEISMIC CYCLE AND PLATE
MOTION
Over time, slip in earthquakes
adds up and reflects the plate
motion

Offset fence showing 3.5 m of left-

lateral strike-slip motion along
San Andreas fault in 1906 San
Francisco earthquake

~ 35 mm/yr motion between

Pacific and North American plates
along San Andreas shown by
offset streams & GPS

Expect earthquakes on average

every ~ (3.5 m )/ (35 mm/yr)
=100 years

Turns out more like 200 yrs

because not all motion is on the
San Andreas
 EARTHQUAKE RECURRENCE IS HIGHLY VARIABLE
Reasons are unclear: randomness, stress effects of other
earthquakes on nearby faults

Extend earthquake Sieh et al.,

1989
history with
paleoseismology M>7 mean 132 yr 105 yr S&W 1.2-
 CHALLENGES OF STUDYING EARTHQUAKE CYCLE

Cycle lasts hundreds of years, so dont have observations of it in

any one place

Combine observations from different places in hope of gaining

complete view

Unclear how good that view is and how well models represent its
complexity.

Research integrates various techniques:

Most faults are identified from earthquakes on them: seismology

is primary tool to study the motion during earthquakes and infer
long term motion

Also

- Historical records of earthquakes

- Field studies of location, geometry, and history of faults

- Geodetic measurements of deformation before, during, and

after earthquakes
 GEODETIC DATA GIVE INSIGHT INTO DEFORMATION BEYOND
THAT SHOWN SEISMOLOGICALLY

Study aseismic processes

Study seismic cycle before, after, and in between earthquakes,

whereas we can only study the seismic waves once an
earthquake occurs
SAR image of Hayward
fault (red line), part of
San Andreas fault system,
in the Berkeley (east San
Francisco Bay) area. Color
changes from orange to
blue show about 2 cm of
gradual movement.

This movement is called

aseismic creep because
the fault moved slowly
without generating an
earthquake
ELASTIC
REBOUND
MODEL OF
STRIKE-SLIP
FAULT AT A
PLATE
BOUNDARY

Large
earthquakes
release all
strain
accumulated on
locked fault
between
earthquakes

Coseismic and
interseismic
motion sum to
plate motion

Interseismic
strain
accumulates
near fault Stein & Wysession, 2003 4.5-12
ELASTIC
REBOUND
MODEL OF
STRIKE-SLIP
FAULT AT A
PLATE
BOUNDARY

Fault parallel interseismic motion on fault with far field slip

rate D, locked to depth W, as function of cross-fault
distance y
s(y) = D/2 + (D / ) tan -1
(y/W)
Width of strain accumulation zone comparable to locking
depth
 QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

FAR FIELD SLIP RATE

D ~ 35 mm/yr

S&W 4.5-13 Z.-K.

 PACIFIC-NORTH AMERICA PLATE
~ 50 mm/yr BOUNDARY ZONE: PLATE MOTION &
plate motion ELASTIC STRAIN
spread over
~ 1000 km
Broa
~ 35 mm/yr d
elastic strain PBZ
accumulatio
n from
locked San
Andreas in
region
Elastic
~ 100 km
strain
wide
Locked
strain will
be released
in
earthquakes QuickTime and a Stein & Sella
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
2002
Since last
EARTHQUAKE CYCLE
SUMATRA TRENCH
INDIA BURMA
INTERSEISMIC:

India subducts
beneath Burma at
about 20 mm/yr
Tsunamigenerated
Fault interface is
locked

EARTHQUAKE
(COSEISMIC):

Fault interface slips,

overriding plate Stein & Wysession, 2003
rebounds, releasing HOW OFTEN: 4.5-14
accumulated motion
and generating
Fault slipped ~ 10 m --> 10000 mm / 20 mm/yr = 500 yr
tsunami
Longer if some slip is aseismic

Faults arent exactly periodic, likely because chaotic nature

of rupture controls when large earthquakes occur
TSUNAMI GENERATED ALONG FAULT, WHERE
SEA FLOOR DISPLACED, AND SPREADS
OUTWARD

QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Hyndeman and Wang, 1993 Red - up motion, blue down

http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/animation.gif
SEISMIC WAVES
COMPRESSIONA
L (P)
AND SHEAR (S)
WAVES
P waves
longitudinal
waves
S waves
transverse
waves

P waves travel
faster
S waves from
earthquake
generally larger Stein & Wysession,
2003
Accuracy (truth) depends EARTHQUAKE LOCATION
primarily on velocity model Least squares fit to travel
Precision (formal uncertainty) times
depends primarily on network
geometry (close stations & eq
within network help)
Locations can be accurate but
imprecise or precise but
inaccurate (line up nicely but
displaced from fault)
Epicenters (surface positions)
betterQuickTime
determined and a than depths or
hypocenters (3D positions)
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
because seismometers only on
surface
 IMPROVE EARTHQUAKE LOCATION

Precision can be improved by

relative location methods like Joint
Epicenter Determination (JED) or
master event
Q u ickTime and a
T IFF (Uncom pre sse d) d eco mp re ssor
a re ne ed ed to see this picture .

Dewey, 1987

Or via better velocity

model, including
methods that
simultaneously improve
velocity model (double-
difference tomography)
 IMPROVE EARTHQUAKE LOCATION

Precision can be improved by

relative location methods like Joint
Epicenter Determination (JED) or
master event
Q u ickTime and a
T IFF (Uncom pre sse d) d eco mp re ssor
a re ne ed ed to see this picture .

Dewey, 1987

Or via better velocity

model, including
methods that
simultaneously improve
velocity model (double-
difference tomography)