CAD Software

CAD software can be divided based upon the

technology used:
1. 2-D drawing. Its applications include,
mechanical part drawing
printed-circuit board design and layout
facilities layout
cartography
2. Basic 3-D drawing (such as wire-frame modelling)
3. Sculptured surfaces (such as surface modelling)
4. 3-D solid modelling
5. Engineering analysis
 Geometric Modeling

Geometric modelling refers to a set of

techniques concerned mainly with
developing efficient representations of
geometric aspects of a design. Therefore,
geometric modelling is a fundamental part
of all CAD tools.
Geometric modeling is the basic of many
applications such as:
Mass property calculations.
Mechanism analysis.
Finite-element modelling.
NC programming.
Requirements of geometric modelling include:
Completeness of the part representation.
The modelling method should be easy to use by designers.
Rendering capabilities (which means how fast the entities
can be accessed and displayed by the computer).
Step from geometric to program
Geometry algebra algorithm program

representation
-Symbolic
-Numerical
-approximation

disediakan oleh Suriati bte S

GMM, FSKSM, UTM
Geometric Modeling Approaches

The basic geometric modelling approaches available to

designers on CAD/CAM systems are:
1. Wire-frame modeling.
2. Surface modeling.
3. Solid modeling.
 Wire-frame Modeling
Wire-frame modelling uses points and curves
(i.e. lines, circles, arcs), and so forth to
define objects.
The user uses edges and vertices of the part
to form a 3-D object

Wire-frame model part

Example
 Wire-frame model

The shape of the object is defined by a

collection of points (vertices) and a set of
edges.
Edges line or curved connects pair of
points
Conventional Approach - Place the
geometry entirely in the data structure.
Another Approach - Procedural Approach
 Wire-frame model

Example : tetrahedron
 Disadvantages of wire-frame
Tend to be not realistic
Ambiguity
complex model difficult to interpret.

What does this object look like

 Disadvantages of wire-frame
Which object does the previous wire-frame
represent?

The use of shading and hidden surface removal

technique can improve the rendition.
 Disadvantages of wire-frame

Does not allow for use of photo realistic rendering

tools. *(some software capable of hidden line
removal on limited basis).
No ability to determine computationally
information on mass properties (e.g volume, mass,
moment etc) and line of intersect between two
faces of intersecting models.
No guarantee that the model definition is correct,
complete or manufacturable.
 Advantages of wire-frame

Easy to construct
Most economical in term of time and
memory requirement.
Used to model solid object.
Often used for previewing objects in an
interactive scenario.
 Surface Modeling
Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe modeling
in that it defines not only the edges of a 3D object, but also its
surfaces.
In surface modeling, objects are defined by their bounding faces.

Examples
 SURFACE ENTITIES
Similar to wireframe entities, existing CAD/CAM
systems provide designers with both analytic and
synthetic surface entities.
Analytic entities include :
Plane surface,
Ruled surface,
Surface of revolution, and
Tabulated cylinder.
Synthetic entities include
The bicubic Hermite spline surface,
B-spline surface,
Rectangular and triangular Bezier patches,
Rectangular and triangular Coons patches, and
Gordon surface.
Plane surface. This is the simplest surface. It requires
three noncoincident points to define an infinite plane.
Ruled (lofted) surface. This is a linear surface. It interpolates
linearly between two boundary curves that define the surface
(rails). Rails can be any wireframe entity. This entity is ideal to
represent surfaces that do not have any twists or kinks.
Surface of revolution. This is an axisymmetric surface
that can model axisymmetric objects. It is generated by
rotating a planar wireframe entity in space about the axis
of symmetry a certain angle.
Tabulated cylinder. This is a surface generated by
translating a planar curve a certain distance along a
specified direction (axis of the cylinder).
Bezier surface. This is a surface that approximates given
input data. It is different from the previous surfaces in
that it is a synthetic surface. Similarly to the Bezier curve,
it does not pass through all given data points. It is a
general surface that permits, twists, and kinks . The
Bezier surface allows only global control of the surface.
B-spline surface. This is a surface that can approximate
or interpolate given input data (Fig. 6-9). It is a synthetic
surface. It is a general surface like the Bezier surface but
with the advantage of permitting local control of the
surface.
 Solid Modeling

Solid models give designers a complete

descriptions of constructs, shape, surface, volume,
and density.
In CAD systems there are a number of
representation schemes for solid modeling
include:
Primitive creation functions.
Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
Sweeping
Boundary Representation (BREP)
Primitive creation functions:
These functions retrieve a
solid of a simple shape from
among the primitive solids
stored in the program in
advance and create a solid of
the same shape but of the
size specified by the user.
 Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG)
CSG uses primitive shapes
as building blocks and
Boolean set operators (U
union, difference, and
intersection) to construct
an object.
Example
 Sweeping
Sweeping Sweeping is
a modeling function in
which a planar closed
domain is translated or
revolved to form a
solid. When the planar
domain is translated,
the modeling activity is
called translational
sweeping; when the
planar region is
revolved, it is called
swinging, or rotational
sweeping.
 Boundary Representation

Objects are represented by their bounded faces.

B-Rep Data Structure
 Data Structure
CSG has the following disadvantages
(Contd)
Gouging detection is difficult.
Many solid modeling systems use hybrid
representation to make use of CSG as well
as B-Rep systems.
B-Rep data Structure
Basic elements of the boundary of a solid are
the vertices, edges, and the faces.
The B-Rep structure stores these entities with
the information about how they are
interconnected.
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 Data Structure
Table shows one of the simplest data B-Rep
data structure for the solid shown in Figure 16.
Face table stores the list of bounding edges for each
face.
The sequence of edges for each face is given by
traversing it counterclockwise when the solid is viewed
from the outside.
By listing the edges in a consistent way, each face can
be stored together with information about what
represents the inside and the outside of the solid from
the information given about the faces.
The vertices, edges, and faces shown in Figure 16 are
numbered arbitrarily by the system when the B-Rep
shown in the Table is stored.
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 Representation of entities
Definition of entities in Wire Frame:
WF can be divided into two classes for
creating elements:
Analytic and Synthetic
Analytic - traditional method of creating
points, lines, arcs, ellipses etc.
Synthetic- curves that are created by
many curve segments.

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 Representation of entities
Synthetic curves:
Design of objects will benefit from a easy
way of controlling the continuity of the
curves designed;
will benefit from less storage space;
less computational time; and
easy input by the user.
Several methods are available as
shown in Figure 20.

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Figure 20 34
 Representation of entities
Analytic curves are well defined.
However objects will benefit from the
ability to alter them.
e.g., car body, fuselage, wings, turbine
blades etc.
Parametric representation of curves
allowing the ability to control the shape
of the curves have been developed as
a solution to this problem.

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 Representation of entities
Concept of continuity is a fundamental
issue in creation of synthetic curves.
Continuity- how smooth are the curves
at the point of junction of two curves.
Three types:
C0, C1, and C2.
C0-The two curves are simply
connected. Gradient and curvature may
be different.
Figures 21a
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Figure 21

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 Representation of entities

C1- Gradient at the point of

intersection must be the same. The
center of curves may be different.
Figure 21b.
C2- Both the gradient and the center of
curvature must be the same. Figure 21c
Curves that are connected by many
curves are called synthetic curves.
Many different types of synthetic
curves are available. 38
 Representation of Curves
Most of the equations for curves used in
CAD software are of third order. Reason?
Two curves each represented by a third order
equation can be combined so that continuity to
their second derivatives is guaranteed at the
connection point.
This implies that the curvature is continuous
across the connection point and that the two
curves appear to be one.
Continuity can be guaranteed with degrees
higher than 3. However, use of higher degree
causes small oscillations in curve shape and
requires more computation. 39
 Representation of entities (HCS)
Hermite Cubic Spline (HCS):
Curve is composed of several
segments with each segment
approximated by a parametric cubic
function of the form
r = V(t) = a0 + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3
r is the vector representation of a point
on the curve.
Parameter t is bounded between 0 and
1.
Segment has highest-degree polynomial
t 3.
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 Representation of entities (HCS)
Reason for using cubic functions:
minimum-order polynomial function that
generates the different types of curves.
Lowest order polynomial that permits
inflection and allows non planar (twisted)
curves to be created.
Higher order polynomials produce
oscillation about control points and also
require very large storage as well as
computation.

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 Representation of entities (HCS)
a0 , a1, a2, and a3 are the four coefficient
vectors needed to define any particular curve
bounded between the values of the
parameters t. They must be determined for a
specific curve representation.
The coefficients do not have direct physical
significance.
They are not convenient handles for
adjusting the segment shape or incorporating
it into a composite curve.

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Representation of entities (HCS)
In HCS a curve is defined as passing
through two points (start and end
points) and having a certain tangent
vector at the two points.
Given V(0), V(1), V(0) and V(1)
Provides the user a way to connect two
curves and assure a certain degree of
continuity.
Figure 22

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Figure 22 44
 Representation of entities (HCS)

r = V(t) = a0 + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3 -eqn1

r-point vector on the cubic curve
defined by the parametric equation V(t).
t takes the value between 0 and 1.
Given V(0), V(1), V(0) and V(1)
Differentiating equation 1 results in
V'(t) = a1 + 2a2t + 3a3t2 -eqn2

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Representation of entities (HCS)

Applying boundary conditions, t=0

V(0) = a0 -eqn3
V'(0) = a1 -eqn4
Applying boundary conditions, t=1
V(1) = a0+ a1+ a2 +a3 -eqn5
V'(1) = a1+ 2a2 +3a3 -eqn6

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 Representation of entities (HCS)

Solve for the constants (a1 through

a4) using equations 3,4,5 and 6.
a0 = V(0)
a1 = V'(0)
a2 = 3[ V(1) - V(0) ] - 2 V' (0) - V' (1)
a3 = 2[ V(0) - V(1) ] + V' (0) + V' (1)

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 Representation of entities (HCS)

Substituting all the as into equations

1 and 2 will yield (after rearranging
the terms)
V(t) = V(0) (1 - 3t2 + 2t3) + V(1) ( 3t2 -
2t3)+ V'(0) (t - 2t2 + t3) + V'(1) (-t2+t3)
V'(t) = V(0) (- 6t + 6t2) + V(1) ( 6t -6t2)
+ V'(0) (3t2 -4t + 1) + V'(1) (3t2 -2t)

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 Representation of entities (HCS)
One can create various shapes of the
curve segment by altering one or more
of V(0), V(1), V'(0) and V'(1).
The vectors V(0), V(1), V'(0) and V'(1)
affect the shape of the curve, with their
relative importance determined by the
functions The functions
f1(t) = 1-3t2 + 2t3 blend the effect
f2(t) = 3t2 - 2t3 of the
f3(t) = t - 2t2 + t3 prescribed
f4(t) = -t2 + t3 boundary
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 Representation of entities (HCS)
Disadvantages of HCS:
first order derivatives are needed and a
designer may not be able to provide that
information;
no local control on the shape of the curve;
and
order of the curve is fixed regardless of
the number of data points.
However one can create various
shapes of curve segments by altering
one or more of V(0), V(1), V(0) and
V(1)
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Representation of entities (Bezier)
In Hermite form, it is not easy to
predict curve shape according to
changes in magnitude of the tangent
vectors.
Bezier, an employee of the French
auto company Renault, suggested a
new form of curve equation and used
it in Renaults surface modeling
system, UNISURF.
The curve is defined by the vertices of a
polygon that enclose the resulting
curve. 51
Representation of entities (Bezier)
The effects of the vertices are weighted by
the corresponding blending functions and
blended as in the Hermite curve.
The resulting function has the
following properties:
The curve passes through the first and the
last vertex of the polygon
The tangent vector at the starting point of
the curve has same direction as the first
segment of the polygon (Figure 25) .
Similarly the last segment of the polygon
gives the slope of the tangent vector at the
ending point.
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Representation of entities (Bezier)
Bezier curves are based on approximation
techniques in comparison to Hermite
curves which are based on interpolation
techniques.
In Bezier, the curves do not pass through
all the given points except the first and
last control point.
Does not require the first-order derivatives
and the shape of the curve is controlled by
control points.

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 Representation of entities (Bezier)
With reference to Figure 25 Bezier curves
have the following properties.
Curves pass through the first and last
control points (v0 and vn) in Figure 25 at
t=0 and 1.
In Figure 25, the starting point V'1 of the
second line and the endpoint V4 of the
first line have the same position.
The tangents at the first and last points
are in the direction of the first and last
segments of the characteristic polygon.
Entire curve lies within the characteristic
polygon known as convex hull property.
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Figure 25 55
Representation of entities (B-Spline)

B-Spline-a generalization of the

Bezier curve and allows local control
wherein one can change the shape of
the curve at any desired point (Figure
26)
In Hermite and Bezier a change of
one control point affects the whole
curve which is not desirable for
designers.
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Figure 26 57
Representation of entities (B-Spline)

Rational B-Spline- a parameter called

weight is associated with each
control point to control the behavior
of the curve.
Most widely used class of RBS is
NURBS (Non Uniform RBS).
Used for free-form surfaces by
defining a mesh of control points.

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