In This Unit. The science of chemistry brings three central benefits to society. First chemistry helps explain how the world works, principally by examining nature on the molecular scale. Second, chemical analysis is used to iden: ly substances, both natural and artificial. This is evident every time a person's blood is tested to determine cholesterol level or when athletes undergo testing for banned drug use. Finally, the science of chemistry is unique in that it involves the ability to create new forms of matter by combining the elements and existing compounds in new but, controlled ways. The creation of new chemical compounds is the subject of this unit. Here, we explore different types of chemical reactions, emphasizing the reactions that take place in aqueous solution,4.1 Types of Chemical Reactions 41a Combination and Decomposition Reactions Chemical reaetions involve the transformation of matter, the reactants, into differ rnaterials the products, com reactants, usually element h typically two oF mon orm one product, usually a cot pound mpoutes, combine U pound, In one type of combination reaction, two element 1 oxygen combine to form water, siviny off Ir For example, the elements hydrogen an amounts of enenay in the process (Faure 4.1. 2 HU) + 0,66) 42,06) ‘This combination reaction was used to generate power from te tain ergines in the space sthtle, which lew its final srission in 2011 Other types of combination 1 compound aud the combination of two different compounds to form a new eompourd dioxide to make sulfur trioxid 280,(q) + 0.(g) + 280\(3) Sullur oxide and water undergo a combination reaetion to form sulfuric acid $04) + HOW + H,80,(29) thot ina combination reaction, the mumber of reactants is greater than the mu provlacts (Figure 4.1 ina typical decomposition reaction (Interactive Figure 4.1.3), the number vets is greater than the number of reactants, The reaction is essentially the reverse of nbination reaction and usually results from the action of thermal For exarnple, water isa very stable compound under typical conditions, bt it can be made clectroly 1 electrical energy 2110" 2.118) + 0.18) Metal carbonstes such as caleium carborate, CaCO, undergo decomposition when hes vt Figure 4.1.1. Hydrogen bums in air to eaC04(s) + CaO(S) + 60.6) form water vapor aiving off carbon dicxidFigure 4.1.2 Zine reacts with iodine to form zine iodide, =~ = 4.1b Displacement Reactions “ified es displacement reactions, reactions iy equal to the number of producte. In molecular Many where the number of react displacement reactions, also 1s anther. Displacement reactions can be single Fragment is Single Displacement Reactions Ine single displacement reaction, n> molecular fragment ie exchanged for another. BX xB4 ced ina solution of copper(I) chloride, them For example, when solid magnesium the more reactive metal, magnesia, replace nesium displaces the copper. In this ca le CuCl (aq) + Mg(s) > MeChaa) + Cu(s Interactive Figure 4.1.3 Explore combination and decomposition reactions. Interactive Figure 4.1.8 The decom: position of mercury(I) oxideAnother comenon single displacement reaction cecurs when a metal eaets with water. fn ‘he reaction of sodiony metal with water, the nveta dis forming sodium hydroxide (Figure 41.1), 2HOCE) + 2 Nas) > Hs) + 2 NaOH (aa) Double Displacement Reactions A doable displacement reaction, also called a metathesis reaction, occurs when tro toms, ions, or molecular fragments exchange AB + XV—rAY + XB laces Iylrogen There are three commen types of double displacement reaction discussed in greater dotal Iter inthis unit Precipitation reactions are douhlecisplacernont reactions that result inthe formation ofan insoluble campoure. Por exaunpie, wien aqueous solutions of kad nitrate and potassian sullte are combined, solid lead sulfate is ford (Interactive Pagar 4.1.5) Pb(NO,)A(aq) + K,S0(q) -> 2 KNOs(0a) + PSO) seach of which will be Many aekd-base reactions, as» called meu tralization reactions, are double displace rent reactions that result in the formation ct wnter How 1) + NANHCaD + HOC) + NaClGaa) The H* and Na* ione exchange to form the preduets, water and sodium chloride Gas forming reactions, oe exemple of which is the reaction betwoen an ionie ble displace rent reactions that rerut mn the formation ‘ofa gas, often carbon dixie (Figure 4.1.6), When hydrochloric acid is added to solid compound and an acid are do riokel(D) catbonate, for example, a double tisplacement reaetion takes place Figure 4.1.4 The displacement reac- tion between sodium metal and water NiC0,@) + 2 HCKaq) + NCLCA) + HheOxGaa) Explore displacement reactions ‘Lead sulfite precipitates when sokaices of load mtzate and potassium sult combine,‘The cartonic acid, 100s, formed in the reaction decomp, dioxide gas. into water and carbon H:COaq) > HOO) + COM) ‘Thus, the net gas-forming reaction between nickel (I) carbonate and hydrochloric acid is written oo NiCOMs) +2 HEICaa) + NiCL(aa) + HOW + 00.68) Notice thatthe decomposition of carbonic acid mmakes this both a double displacement reac tien and a decomposition reaction Example Problom 4.1.1 Identify reaction types. ‘Classy and balance each ofthe folowing reactions HNO.Gaa) + Ca(OH)a(s) + H.0(6) + Ca(NO. L.AIG) + Br(O) > ALBr() Figure 4.4.6 The reaction of ter caleium carbonate with an zcid ‘You are asted to balance a cherrical equation and clasiy the typeof chemical reaction. procinces carbon dioxide gas. ‘You are given an unbalino=d!equstion a This is double displacement reaction, specifically an acid-base reaction, The H® ancl Ca ions exchange to Form the products of the reaction. 2HNOsad) + Ca(OH,(6) +2 4.010) + CatND).G) 1. Thie isa combination reaction, 2AIG) +3 Br(O — ALEn(s) 4.2 Aqueous Solutions 4.2a Compounds in Aqueous Solution Many chemical reactions take place in a solvent, 2 chemical species in which the chemical reactants are dissolved. A solution is a homogeneous mixture formed wher a chernical species, a solute, is mixed with a solvent, typically a quid. Much of the chemistry of life ‘98 well as much of the chemistry of ¢ so merce invelves aolutions in which water is the int A.compound dissolved in water isin an aqneoms state, indicated with the syrabol (aa) in chemical equations,When an ionic compound such as sodium chloride dissolves in wate, its constituent Jons separate and become solvated, surrounded by solvers molecules. When waters th solvent, the ion are hydrated, and after Hydation aceurs, the individual ions have bts ‘contact with ove another Clueractive Figure 42.1) Explore the dissolution of NaCl. Hyst!wi [Notice tht in Interactive Figure 4.24 the water molecoles orient themselves 59 that the ‘oxygen atoms are near te Na cations and the hycgen atoms are wear the CI anions ‘This i due to ‘molecules. Flashforwand to Section 8 6 Notecub Polarity) Waters a neutral eampound Dt the electrons in the eowlent OH bonds are dsttbuted unevenly so that they are loser to oxygen than Iydrogen. As a result, cach HO molecule has a buildup of partial negative charge near the oxygen end ofthe molecule an pata! postive charge near the Inyrosen atoms. Thus, the negative end of a water molcele is strony attracted topos! tively elergd cations, andthe positive ead of each water rece x altractel to anos “The desolation of sod sodium corde can be waitin a & chemical equation, NoCl(s) + Na" (oq) + 1 (aa) he polar nature of water, a result of uneven electron distribution in water ‘Because the two types of ions are independent once dissolved, it dows not matter where they orstinated. Thc means thero is no difference between a hydrated No° ion that came from dissing NaC] ara one tha cane from dissohing, for example, N80,i Explore the conductivity of aqueous ‘bon, Using the simple conductinty apparatus chown in Interactive Figure 2.2, you can eee ‘hata solution of NaCl eonuets electricity. The tyeated ins prose in the anuieous NaCl solutions solution canny the electrical charge from one electrode v0 the other, completing. the ste Compounds that dissolve to frm hydrated ions ard incresee the electrical conductivity of water ar called electrolytes, onic cotmpounvs such ae sodium chloride tht dissociate 10006 in water to form Hydasto ions aro strong electrolytes, 100% Nace Nap + CG) ‘There are many examples of compounds tha dissalve in water but do not form ions, such as erase ( nud ethanol (CH.CH,OH), These compounds are nonelectrelytes induct eketsicits, Weak electrolytes, such as fcetie acid, are compouands whose zolitions condact electricity only slishtl. These cor pounds dissolve in vrater and form ions, but they do not dissociate completely. Far example, and form acueous solations that do not when acetic ack is added to water, the solution contains nen tea arwd CH00." ions, ial nog with ya Jess than 1008 (H.CO.H(a«) CHO e+ HG 4.2b Solubility of lonic Compounds y — i Many ionic compounds ate soluble in water; that is they dissolve in water to form pens Sin fds ala colt solutions containing hydrated ions. Toric compounds that do not dissolve to-an appre ect Cable extent are Insoluble in water. Ree cations and anions held together by ion that jonie compeunds eonsist of individual orees in a three-dimensional arrangeracnt water, strong hydration forces between ‘ons and watar meleculos replace these ionie forces I the ionic forces are very strona, however the rompaund does not dissociate ita hysrated sons and it does nat diseotve When a soluble ionie compound disso A peecivitation reaction occurs when an insoluble ionic compound is the product of an nae reaction. Predicting the eolibility of ionic compounds, therefore, allows 1 to precipitate, ht form when solutions containing fare mixed. We can use general trends in the solubility ine comapotnds dasetane prathea ad, ca foie compra soaininy commonly encouatered ions to predict wheter an inc eubound will be sel able in water, as shown in Interactive Table 4.21Solubility Rules for Tonte Compounds in Water Soluble Toni Compounds™ ‘Notable Exceptions AM sodium (Na), potas (K*), and aru ium (NEL) ts Allutrate (VO;), acetate (CH4CO;"), cho rate (CIO, ), and parehieste (C10, ) sake ‘Allchlride (CL), bronide (Br-),sndiowkde | Compounds alo cortaining led, sve, ans cor meneuny(D) (PH, Ag, Hig") are insoluble All acre (Esa Compounds sso containing clean, stron arin, oF ead (Ce, S ‘Be, Ph) ae insoluble. All ullre 60+) eats Compounds also coring clean, sereury(, strontium, baru or lad (Gat ge, SE", Be, POE) are iinoluble Insoluble Tonic Compounds Exceptions Hydroxide (OH) and oxide (0) compounds. | Compounds ao containing sodum, potassium, barium (Na, K*, Ba") are reluble. Sudo (S) sats (Compounds also consirung sodium, potas slum noni, or tim OS. NH", Ba") are soluble Conbonate (CO#-) and phosphate (P04) sats | Compounds also ccetaning sodium, potassium or ammonium (Na*, K* NIL) se sohitle Notice that eacefication of onic compound solubility t primarily based on the argon inthe ‘compound, When classifying an ionte compound at soluble or insoluble, frst determine ‘whether the anion presenti typically ound insoluble or insoluble ccmpounds. Next see ifthe cation in he compound results in an exception to the soubilty guidelines, For example, sodium nitrate, NaNO, sa solube ion eornpan hecause it contains the 1NO5- joo, am anion fu in. soluble cempaunvs. Calin nitrate, CaQN0:),, is also soluble‘because to contains the NO,” anion Silver chloride, AgCl is an insakable comporind even, though compounds containing CI- are generally soluble. As shown in Interactive Table 4.2.1, when the chloride fon is paired with Ag’, Hac, or PU, an insoluble cumpound resus. Caleium earbonate, C2CO., isan insoluble compound. The presence of the carbonate ion (COF-) places this compound in the group of gencrally insoluble compounds. Tho enly exceptions to dis rule are carbonate compounds containing NHa*, K. of Na* ions, [ts important to note that many common ionic compormes have solubilities that are on the borderine of being considered aokuble or insoluble, Fer exarmple, both g.S0, and PbCL, have solubities (at 25 °C) that are only slightly below the 1g compound per 100 x water cutoff for soluble compounds in Interactive Table 42.1. Its the concentration of ons in sok tion that determines whether these borderline soluble compounds precipitate frem sohution. Example Problom 4.2.1. Characterize the solubility of ionic compounds, (Classify cach ofthe compounds as soluble or insoluble in water 1 Lead cleride . Magnesium iodide fe. Nickel aulide ‘Solution: ‘You are asked to classify a compound as soluble or insoluble in water. ‘You are glven the nam ofa compound. a Lead chbrde, POOL, is insoluble in water. As shown in Interactive Table 4.21, ionic com ‘pounds containing te chloride ion are generally soluble, but lead chloride isan excep tion to this rule bo, Magnesium iodide, Mala, is sluble in water. As shown in Interactive Table 421, most fone compounds that contain tbe ide fon are soluble in water, with the exception of hla Aaland Hala Nickel sulfide, Ni, is insoluble in water. As shown in Interactive Table 42.1, most metal ‘sulfides ate insole in water 4.3 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 4.3 Precipitation Reactions and Net lonic Equations When solutions containing soluble ionic compounds are mixed, the hydrated ions inter tingle. Whether or not one of the throe common exchange reactions —precipitation reac- tons, acid-base reactions, and gas-forming reactions—oceurs depends on the identity of the ions in sokution,A prospitation reaction occurs wen a solution, orginally containing dissived spocis, produces a solid, which generally is denser and falls to the bottom af the reaetion vessel (igure 4.31). "The most common precipitation reactions occurring in aqueous soluticn involve the formation of an insoluble ionie compound when two solutions containing soluble com pounds are mixed. Consider what happens when an aqueeus solution of NaCl is added to sm aqueous sol tion of AgNO}. The fist solution contains hydrated Na* and Cl ins and the second solu- tion, At” and NOS ions. NaCi(e) Na" (aq) + C1-Gaa) ABNOs(5) > AsCan) + NOs Cat) When mixed, a double displacement reaction takes place, forming the soluble compound NaNO, and the insoluble compound AgCl In the reaction vestel the Ag” and CI~ sons com. bine, and a white solid precipitates from the scfution. As the said precipitates, the Na* ancl NO,” ons remain in solution The overall double displacement reaction is represented by the flowing balanced equation: NaCl(aq) + AsNOsCad) > ABCUG) + NaNOsGud When determining whether a precipitation reaction will occur, frst identify the ions present when the tke solutions ate mised and then see an exchange of tone results in an Insoluble ionic compound, If an insoluble compound can form, a precipitation reaction oe curs Ifna combination of fons resulsin an insohible compound, nia net reaction aceurs and the two sohations mix withoa the formation of a precipitate For example, consider the reaction of calene nitrate with sora carborsate, Calcium nitrate is a soluble compound (all ionic compounds containing the NOs” ian are soluble), nd sodium carbonate is 2 soluble compound (ll cee compounds containing the Na’ ion are sole) Ca(NO.),(8) -> Cx#*(aq) + 2NO5"Caq) Na,CO,{s) 2 Na"(aq) + 002-(aa) ‘The exchange of fans results in Ca#* paired with CO: to form CaCO, and Na” paired with NO,- to form NaNO,, Calcium carbonate i an insoluble compound (most ionic compouads containing the carbonate in are insoluble), and NaNO. is soluble. A precipitation reaction occurs, and the balanced eatin is Ca(NO.)s(aq) + NayCO4(aq) —> CaCO4(s) + 2 NaNOCaa) Figure 4.9.1 The precipitation of lead iedide :Example Problem 4.9.1 Predict products arel write equations: {for precipitation reactions, ‘a. When aqueous solutions of Pb(NO.), and KI are mixed, does a preciitate fom? b. Write a balanced cquaticn for the precitation reaction that occurs when aqucous solu tions of copper(I) toile and potassium hytroxide are ccmbined, ‘Solution: You are asked to predict whether a precipitate will form during s chemical reaction and to vwnte a balanced equation fora precipitation reaction. ‘You are given the identity of two reactants Yes, a sold precipitate, Pha, forms when these solutions are moxed: Pb(NO,).Caq) + KI{aq) + PbI,(s) + 2 KNO,(aa) 'b. The two products of the reacticn are insoluble copper (I) hydroxide and soluble potas- siam jedi (Caly(ay) + 2 KORICau) + CuCOHs) + 2.KIa) In the equation forthe formation of solid Ag(I shown previously, three of the species, NaCl AgNO,, ane NaNO,, are strong electrolytes that dissoriato 100% into ions in aqueous sol tinn. itis therefore possible to-write the balanced equation in its completely sonized form: Na (aa) + CI-(au) + Ax (aa) + NOg- (a) > AxCI(s) + Na“ (aa) + NO}-(au) ‘Two of theionie species, Nat and NO,-, do not change during the reaction; they are present in exactly the same form in the reactants and the pmduets. These unchanged ions are called spectator ions because they do not participate in the chemical reaction. A net Jonie equation is written by removing the spectator ions from the eotmpletely ionized ‘equation and shows only the chemical species that participate in the chemical reaction, Completely ionized equation: Na‘(aq) + Cl-Gaq) + Ag* (aq) + NO}- (ag) + AgCU(s) + Na°(aq) + ND;-Caa) spectator ion spectator ion spectator ions Net tonic equation: GI (aa) + As" (aa) > ARCs) Por precipitation reactions, net ionic ecunations are written following the stopsin Interactive ‘Table 4.3.1.Writing Net Tonle Equations for Precipitation Reactions ‘Step 1. Wrte a balanced chemical equatin fr the precipation reaction Step 2. Identify al strona electrolytes (soluble compound) in the reaction and waite them in their completely ized form. Step 3. Identify the spectator ions in the reaction Step 4. Remove spectator ine and wnt the reaction ting only the species that resin, = TE aS ‘ite the net iis equation fo the precipitation reaetion tha. occurs when aqueous salutons of sou sulle an chrerimn(I}) acetate are cembied ‘Solution: ‘You are asked to write a nt ion equation fr a chemical reaction. ‘You are given ihe entity ofthe reactants ‘Step 1. 3NaS(an) +2 CHCH:CODs(an) — 6 NICHCOslad) + CSS) ‘Step 2. Sirong electroytes (Soluble compounds): Nas, Cr(CH,CO.),, ane! NaCH.CO; (ONa (aa) + 3 * (aa) + 2Cr*(aq) + 6CHLCO, Can) SONA") + BCHICOMag) + Cris) ‘Step 3. Spectatorions: Na” and CHOOs Step 4 aie +95 (aq) + BOF CaN + ECO — Oster + BCEAO) + CHS) 2S-(aq) + 2Cr+(aq) + CRS,C0) 4.3b Acid-Base Reactions Acid-base reactions are a secord example of double displacement (exchange) reactions that take plane in aquecussokution. Acids and bates are common materials, found in foors (trae acid gives lemons their sour taste: acetic acd is ane component of vinegar) and houschold raters (sodium hycroxide and ammonia are bases found in many eleanina.produets) There are many ways to define acids and bases. (b Flashforward to Section 16.1 Introduction {to Ackis and Rases) In one ofthe simplest defitions, an aed a species that procices H” fons ‘when dissolved in water and a base is a species that increases the amount of OH- ione in asolution. Bases olzo react with H” jon and can therefore alco be described ae proton (H") ‘acceptors. Acids and bases are sleetrojtes that produce hydrated ins in aqueous solution, ‘An acid-base reaction i also known ae a neutralization reaction because the reacticn ‘con result in a solution that is neutral. That is, it no longer has acidic or basic propertos. For example, consider the resction of nitric arid (HNO,) and sodium hyudraxie (NaOH). HNO,(ap + NadtI(aq) LOCO + NaNO4¢aq) ‘This reaction between an acid and a base produces water and a salt, an ionic compoursd Formed as te reat ofan ackl-base reaction that consists of cation dont from abace ard ‘an anion donated fram an acid. Notice that this is also a double displacement reaction. The base in this reaction, NaOH, acts asa proton acceptor, combine with 1 to form water. ‘Acids Nitric acid is a strong acid because it sa strong electrolyte that ionizes 100% in aqueous solution d\ectie acids an example of @ weak acid, a weak electrolyte that dace nat eom- ‘pty ionize m solution (Table 43.2) 10 scap + aNo,(aq) 2% econ + NO, (2a) Jess than 100%, (a9) + C100." CHE CO;ag) Essa LOMM, 1a) + CHCO5 (aad ‘There are si important song acids in aqueous solution (Tub: 432) and murnerous weak fecids Many neak acids are organic acids, compounis made up mostiy of carbon, hydrogen, ‘and oxygen that also contain the —C(O)OH siructural group (Figure 4.22),