UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL CALLAO

FACULTAD DE INGENIERA ELECTRICA Y ELECTRONICA

ESCUELA DE INGENIERIA ELECTRONICA

SEMANA 5 - COMUNICACIONES POR SATELITE

6/10/2017 1
 Satlites de comunicaciones
Qu es un satlite de
comunicaciones?
Un retransmisor radioelctrico en el

espacio

Recibe, amplifica y reorienta seales

hacia la tierra o a otros satlites (ISL)

6/10/2017 2
 Por qu emplear las comunicaciones por
satlite?
Alto cubrimiento geogrfico
Reduccin del problema
de la lnea de vista
Elevada confiabilidad (99.9% Up
time)
Difusin confiable de informacin
Fcil de instalar
Soporta diversas aplicaciones:

Video
Datos
Voz

6/10/2017 3
 Por qu emplear
comunicaciones satelitales?
Ideal para redes
distribuidas y punto
multipunto
Ancho de banda
asimtrico
Bajo BER
Entrega simultnea de
datos a varios puntos
Independencia de una
red pblica

6/10/2017 4
 Tipos de Satlites
MEO
Altura entre 10.075 y 20.150 Km.
Su posicin relativa respecto a la superficie no es fija.
LEO
Situados a 1.500 Km. por termino medio
Perodos orbitales se encuentran entre los 90 y los 120
minutos.
GEO
A 36000 Km.(~5,6 del radio de la tierra)
Perodo orbital 23 h, 56 min. y 4 seg.
Constelacin de satlites.

6/10/2017 5
 Satlites Geoestacionarios
Ventajas:

Los satlites tienen la misma velocidad angular

que la tierra, con lo que pueden establecer
radioenlaces con estaciones terrenas cuyas
antenas apuntan a un punto fijo en el cielo.

La elevada altitud de la rbita posibilita que 3

satlites sean suficientes para cubrir toda la
superficie terrestre.

6/10/2017 6
 Satlites Geoestacionarios
Desventajas:
Las zonas de servicio de los satlites (footprints) son
muy grandes, con lo que se malgasta parte de ella en
regiones indeseadas como ocanos, zonas poco
pobladas, etc.
Debido a la elevada altitud de la rbita, las prdidas por
atenuacin son considerables. No es posible disear
terminales porttiles de bolsillo.
Tambin a causa de la distancia, el retardo de
propagacin es lo suficientemente elevado
Al ser la rbita ecuatorial, la cobertura empeora
notablemente con la latitud.

6/10/2017 7
 Parmetros de GEO ideal

PARMETROS DE UNA RBITA GEOESTACIONARIA

Periodo del satlite (T) 23 hr, 56 min, 4 seg
Radio de la Tierra (r) 6,377 Km
Altitud del satlite (h) 35,779 Km
Radio de la rbita (d = r+h) 42,157 Km
Inclinacin (respecto al
ecuador) 0
Velocidad tangencial del
satlite (v) 3.074 km/seg
Excentricidad de la rbita 0

6/10/2017 8
 Satlites de Orbita Baja
Ventajas:
Dbil atenuacin del enlace, lo que posibilita la
reduccin del tamao de los satlites y de los
terminales, que pueden ser fcilmente de bolsillo.
Retardo de propagacin tolerable para servicio de voz en
tiempo real.
Posibilidad de cobertura en los polos (con rbitas
inclinadas).
Las zonas de servicio son pequeas, permitiendo un
mejor aprovechamiento de las mismas.
Una red LEO puede contar con ISLs, lo que supone una
alternativa a las redes terrestres.

6/10/2017 9
 Satlites de Orbita Baja
Desventajas:

Para obtener cobertura global, necesitamos

una constelacin de decenas de satlites.

El empleo de ISLs, conlleva un aumento

considerable de la complejidad del satlite.

Debido a la elevada velocidad del satlite

respecto de la tierra, la conmutacin de
llamadas en curso (handover) es frecuente.

6/10/2017 10
 Caractersticas

6/10/2017 11
 Resumen de orbitas
Distancia a la tierra: (GEO, MEO, LEO)

Plano orbital respecto al plano ecuatorial terrestre:

(ecuatorial, inclinada, polar)

Trayectoria orbital: (circular, elptica)

Geosncrona: Circular con perodo de un da sideral.

Geoestacionaria: Igual que el geosncrono pero tiene cero

grados respecto al plano ecuatorial.

6/10/2017 12
 Bandas de Frecuencias
FRECUENCIA DE
BANDAS
TRABAJO
Banda P 200-400 Mhz.
Banda L 1530-2700 Mhz.
Banda S 2700-3500 Mhz.
3700-4200 Mhz.
Banda C 4400-4700 Mhz.
5725-6425 Mhz.
Banda X 7900-8400 Mhz.
Banda Ku1 (Banda PSS) 10.7-11.75 Ghz.
Banda Ku2 (Banda DBS) 11.75-12.5 Ghz.
Banda Ku3 (Banda Telecom) 12.5-12.75 Ghz.
Banda Ka 17.7-21.2 Ghz.

Banda K 27.5-31.0 Ghz.

6/10/2017 13
 Bandas de Frecuencias
Banda C Banda Ku Banda Ka

La banda C se refiere al margen 5,9 6,4 GHz

para el canal ascendente y 3,7 4,2 para el
descendente. Proporciona transmisiones de
ms baja potencia que la Ku, ms cobertura
geogrfica, con un plato del orden de 3 m, con
un mayor margen de error de apuntamiento.

6/10/2017 14
 Bandas de
Frecuencias
Banda C Banda Ku Banda Ka

La banda Ku utiliza el margen 14-14,5 GHz

para al canal ascendente y 11,7 12,2 GHz
para el descendente. Esta banda proporciona
ms potencia que la C y, el plato de la antena
receptora es del orden de 1,22 m., pero la
cobertura es menor, no la afectan las
interferencias terrestres, pero s las
perturbaciones meteorolgicas, producen
distorsiones y ruido en la transmisin.

6/10/2017 15
 Bandas de
Frecuencias
Banda C Banda Ku Banda Ka

Existe actualmente una banda de frecuencias

emergente en el sector civil que proviene del
mbito militar. Se trata de la banda Ka, que
opera entre 18 y 31 GHz, con la que se espera
satisfacer la creciente saturacin de las
bandas C y Ku.

6/10/2017 16
 Circuito De Comunicaciones
Enlace ascendente.
Enlace descendente.
Oficia de repetidora (6GHz 4GHz).
Nmero ilimitado de antenas
receptoras.
Capacidad para alcanzar cualquier
nmero de clientes.
Independiente de la geografa.

6/10/2017 17
 El Arco Geosincrnico
rbita geoestacionaria.
35km sobre el Ecuador.
Permanece inmvil para el
observador en tierra.
Antena receptora fija a un punto.

6/10/2017 18
 Asignacin De Frecuencias
Frecuencia Asignacin de la FCC
(MHz)
3 - 54 Radiomvil
54 - 72 Canales 2 4 de TV (VHF)
72 - 76 Servicios de radio
76 - 88 Canales 5 y 6 de TV (VHF)
88 - 108 Radio FM
108 - 120 Aeronutica
120 - 136 Aeronutica
136 - 144 Gobierno
144 - 148 Radioaficionados
148 - 151 Radionavegacin
151 - 174 Tierra, Mvil y Martima
174 - 216 Canales 7 13 de TV (VHF)
216 - 329 Gobierno
329 - 890 Canales 14 83 de TV (UHF)
6/10/2017 19
 Asignacin De Frecuencias

6/10/2017 20
 Esquema Operativo De Un
Satlite
Nombre
Ancho de banda
de la
(GHz)
banda
Banda L 0.39 a 1.55
Banda S 1.55 a 5.2
Banda C 3.70 a 6.20
Banda X 5.20 a 10.9
Banda K 10.9 a 36.0

5.9 a 6.4 GHz 3.7 a 4.2 GHz

6/10/2017 21
 Formato De Los Canales De
Video
Polarizacin vertical
Polarizacin horizontal
Transponder 36MHz
500MHz
12 segmentos de 40MHz
Guarda 20MHz

6/10/2017 22
 Mapas De Pisada
Mapas de potencia isotrpica.
Indican la potencia irradiada en cada
lugar geogrfico.
Existen para todos los satlites
comerciales.
Internet.

6/10/2017 23
 Antenas
Geometra de las antenas de un solo foco
y Cassegrain

6/10/2017 24
 Rendimiento De Las Antenas
Ganancia de las antenas
Eficiencia
Abertura del haz y lbulos
secundarios
Relacin del largo focal al dimetro
de la antena
Ruido de antena (temperatura de
ruido)

6/10/2017 25
 Rendimiento De Las Antenas

6/10/2017 26
 Ruido De Antena
Fuentes artificiales (luz
fluorescente).
Terreno circundante.
Inversamente proporcional a la
elevacin.
Inversamente proporcional al
dimetro del plato.

6/10/2017 27
 Ruido De Antena

6/10/2017 28
 Construccin Del Plato
Repujado.
Estampado o hidroformado.
Fibra de vidrio.
Malla de alambre o metal expandido.

6/10/2017 29
 Amplificadores De Bajo Ruido
(LNA)
Temperatura y cifra de ruido
Temperatura de ruido (K) Cifra de ruido (dB)
60 0.819
65 0.881
70 0.942
75 1.002
80 1.061
85 1.120
90 1.177
95 1.234
100 1.291
110 1.401
120 1.508

6/10/2017 30
 Amplificadores De Bajo Ruido
(LNA)
LNA LNB LNC
Amplificacin X X X
Conversin X X
Seleccin de
X
canales

6/10/2017 31
Evaluacin Del Rendimiento De
Un LNA
Temperatura de ruido (K)
Ganancia
15 a 24 voltios

Transicin
Aislador
de la gua Aislador
de baja
de ondas Ampl Gasfet Ampl Gasfet Ampl Bipolar de salida
prdida
a la (opcional)
(opcional)
antena

Ganancia 12dB Ganancia 12dB Ganancia 30dB

Ruido 60K Ruido 7K Ruido 23K

Ganancia total = 12dB Conector N

Ruido total = 90K

6/10/2017 32
 Cables Coaxiles
Impedancia caracterstica
Prdidas de seal
Prdida de seal (dB/100
Tipo de pies) Impedancia
cable en Ohms
100MHz 1450MHz 4GHz
RG-59 3.40 11 N/D 75
RG-6A 2.70 8.7 N/D 75
RG-11 2.30 7.0 N/D 75
RG-8A 1.90 23.0 50
RG-213 1.90 21.5 50
RG-214 2.30 21.5 50
9913 N/D 11.0 50
9914 N/D 13.0 50
6/10/2017 33
 Down Converter
Conversin individual

FI
Del LNA Mixer Etapa FI

Selector
VTO
de canal

VTO = Oscilador sintonizable por tensin

LO = Oscilador local fijo
DSO = Oscilador fijo con estabilizacin dielctrica
FI = Tpicamente 70MHz
RF Tpicamente 950 a 1450 MHz

6/10/2017 34
 Down Converter
Conversin doble

FI
Del LNA Mixer Mixer Etapa FI

Selector
VTO LO
de canal

VTO = Oscilador sintonizable por tensin

LO = Oscilador local fijo
DSO = Oscilador fijo con estabilizacin dielctrica
FI = Tpicamente 70MHz
RF Tpicamente 950 a 1450 MHz

6/10/2017 35
 Down Converter
Conversin en bloque
Convertidor Receptor

RF
Del LNA Mixer Mixer Etapa FI

Selector
VTO VTO
de canal

VTO = Oscilador sintonizable por tensin

LO = Oscilador local fijo
DSO = Oscilador fijo con estabilizacin dielctrica
FI = Tpicamente 70MHz
RF Tpicamente 950 a 1450 MHz

6/10/2017 36
 Receptores
Down converter
Etapa final FI
Detector Demodulador
Procesadores de video y audio
Modulador

6/10/2017 37
 Receptores
Doble conversin Control
Bloque FI Demodulador de video
Salida de
Amp video
l
vide
Segunda o
conversin
FI 70 TV
Primera Detector
conversin MHz FM Modulador

~VCO
Detector
Audio
Ampl
Salida de
audio
Demodulador de audio

6/10/2017 38
Evaluacin Del Rendimiento Del
Receptor
Amplitud de dB encima
o debajo Calidad de imagen
banda de video. del umbral
Umbral del 5
Extremadamente ruidosa;
desgarramiento de audio
receptor.
6 Algo mejor, con chispas
Contemplable, pero con
7
chispas
Umbral Pocas chispas
Muy buena imagen;
9 chispas solo en los
colores saturados
10 Calidad de cinta de video

11 Calidad de TV de cable

6/10/2017 39
 Configuracin Del Sistema
Anlisis de los enlaces
Tamao del plato Umbral del receptor de video
DEPENDE DE
Temperatura de ruido Portadora isotrpica efectiva EIRP

C/N=EIRP Prdidas en el trayecto + G 10 log T 10 log B +228,6

Temperatura de ruido del sistema

Tamao mnimo del plato
C/N = EIRP + G - 10 log T 41.68

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 Susceptibilidades a Las
Interferencias Terrestres

6/10/2017 41
 Muescado De La TI

6/10/2017 42
 Efecto De Un Filtro Muesca

6/10/2017 43
 Estaciones Terrenas

6/10/2017 44
 FUNCION

La principal funcin de la estacin

terrena es la adecuacin de las
seales de TV para su transmisin al
satlite, desde donde se realiza la
radiodifusin de las mismas.
Dependiendo del tipo de estacin,
sta se puede encargar de transmitir
y/o recibir informacin, controlar el
estado del satlite y su situacin
orbital.
6/10/2017 45
 Tipos de Estaciones Terrenas
Pequeas estaciones receptoras de
TV por satlite DBS; estaciones
terrenas porttiles (deportes,
conferencias); Estaciones o
terminales VSAT, Terminales de
Abertura Muy Pequea (redes de
difusin, transmisin de datos
privados, intercambio de datos, etc);
y Grandes estaciones de
comunicaciones internacionales.
6/10/2017 46
 Estaciones terrestres porttiles de
satlites de transmisin ascendente

La estacin terrestre porttil tiene muchos

usos:
Acontecimientos deportivos.

Conferencias.

Reuniones sociales.

Eventos oficiales y estatales.

Informes blicos: la informacin en directo

desde un campo de batalla fue aadida a
la lista desde la Guerra del Golfo.
Informacin de noticias: existen al menos
una docena de agencias implicadas en
este negocio.
6/10/2017 47
 ELEMENTOS
Los elementos esenciales, aparte del
montaje, son una brjula y un
inclinmetro, con los que la antena
parablica de satlites puede colocarse
exactamente en azimut y elevacin. Antes
de ponerla en funcionamiento es necesario
conseguir la autorizacin legal del
organismo de telecomunicaciones
correspondiente. Existe una nica
excepcin a esta norma cuando la
estacin se instala en una embajada
6/10/2017 48
 Receptor DBS bsico.
Hoy en da se fabrican tres tipos de estaciones
receptoras:
Instalaciones para viviendas unifamiliares

Instalaciones para comunidades de vecinos: son

las ms comunes en nuestra ciudad. Estas
instalaciones son ms complejas al tener que
servir a un mayor nmero de usuarios, lo que
implica que para recibir varios canales se
necesitan varias unidades conversoras.
Instalaciones profesionales para estaciones de
cabecera de redes de CATV, centros repetidores
de TV que reciben la programacin va satlite.
Estas instalaciones son las ms complejas y
requieren antenas de gran dimetro

6/10/2017 49
 INSTALACION Y PARTES
La instalacin unifamiliar consta de
antena, alimentador, LNB y una unidad
interior que hace las funciones de
demodulador de F.I. del canal deseado y
modulador de R.F. en un nuevo canal.
La instalacin para una comunidad de
vecinos consta de un nmero de
elementos mayor, al hacerse necesario
demodular continuamente todos los
canales que se quieren recibir y amplificar
todos los canales de R.F. generados
6/10/2017 50
Antena: La antena de reflector parablico se ha convertido
en el smbolo de l receptor terreno en un sistema de
transmisin de seales de TV va satlite.

6/10/2017 51
 Alimentador: El alimentador se encarga de recoger las microondas
concentradas en el foco de la parbola y pasarlas al elemento
siguiente. El alimentador nos permite recibir todas las polaridades que
llegan a la antena, las cuales sern separadas ms adelante

6/10/2017 52
 Polarrotor: Permite la recepcin de las dos polaridades
utilizando un solo conversor LNB. Su funcionamiento se
basa en el giro de 90 de una sonda situada en su interior.
como se pierde los canales de la otra polaridad no puede
utilizarse en instalaciones colectivas.
Ortomodo: Permite la recepcin simultnea de seales
con polarizacin vertical y horizontal mediante la utilizacin
de un repartidor de guas de onda en el que una de las
guas se gira 90 . A l se tendr que conectar dos
conversores LNB, uno para cada polarizacin.

6/10/2017 53
LNB: Conversores que se encargan de convertir en bloque
las seales en las bandas 10.95-11.7 GHz, 11.7-12.5 GHZ
12.5-12.75 GHz a una frecuencia intermedia situada

entre 950 y 1750 MHz con un bajo factor de ruido.

6/10/2017 54
Bsicamente la Unidad Exterior se
compone de los siguientes elementos:
Antena.
Sistemas electrnicos.
Amplificador de transmisin.
Receptor de bajo ruido.
Sintetizador de frecuencia.
Osciladores para variar la frecuencia.
Duplexor.
Amplificador de potencia .

6/10/2017 55
 Los parmetros necesarios para especificar al
Unidad Interior son:
Nmero de puertos.
Tipo de los puertos:
Mecnicos.
Elctricos.
Funcionales.
Procedurales.
Velocidad de los puertos. Es la mxima velocidad
(bps) del flujo de datos entre el terminal de usuario
y la unidad interior de VSAT en un puerto dado.

6/10/2017 56
6/10/2017 57
La va de transmisin de una estacion
terrestre consta de :
Interconexin con las seales de entrada
de la banda base.
Procesamiento de la banda base.

Convertidor de IF a RF.
Amplificador de gran potencia AGP.
Klinston de gran potencia.

Alimentacin de la antena.

Antena parablica.

6/10/2017 58
Para la recepcin podemos considerar que
es como la imagen de un espejo:
Antena parablica.

Convertidor de RF a IF .

Procesamiento de la banda base.

Interconexin con la salida de la banda

base.
Amplificador de nivel bajo de ruidos de
alimentacin ANBA

6/10/2017 59
 LINK BUDGET

6/10/2017 60
 LINK BUDGET
Introduccin:

El enlace satelital esta definido como la conexin re Estacion

Terrena A - Satelite - Estacion Terrena B .
El segmento entre la Estacion Terrena A y el satellite es
llamado Enlace Ascendente o uplink, el comprendido entre el
satelite y la Estacion Terrena B es llamado Descendente o
downlink.
El diseo de la Station Terrena consiste en establecer los
clculos correctos del enlace de Transmisin o Link Budget y
disear el sistema de transmisin correcto.
El Link Budget establece los requerimientos necesarios para
que el servicio entregue alusuario de forma correcta los
bojetivos de performance requeridos para la transmision de las
seales.

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 LINK BUDGET
Los objetivos de performance para
enlaces satelitales digitales consisten
en:

Un BER(Bit Error Rate) adecuadoc

paraoperar ewn condiciones normales

Disponibilidad del enlace o el

porcentaje de tiempo en el cual e
enlace mantiene un BER superior
alnivel de umbralb o de threshold
6/10/2017 62
 LINK BUDGET

The satellite link is composed primarily of

three segments:
(i) the transmitting Earth station and the
uplink media;
(ii) the satellite; and
(iii) the downlink media and the receiving
Earth station.
The carrier level received at the end of the
link is a straightforward addition of the
losses and gains in the path between
transmitting and receiving Earth stations.

6/10/2017 63
 Typical Satellite Link
6/10/2017 64
 LINK BUDGET
The basic carrier-to-noise relationship in a
system establishes the transmission
performance of the RF portion of the
system, and is defined by the receive
carrier power level compared to the noise
at the receiver input. For example, the
downlink thermal carrier-to-noise ratio is:
C/N = C -10log(kTB) (1)
Where:
C = Received power in dBW
k = Boltzman constant, 1.38*10-23 W/K/Hz
B = Noise Bandwidth (or Occupied Bandwidth) in
Hz
T = Absolute temperature of the receiving
system in K
6/10/2017 65
Link Parameters Impact on Service Quality

6/10/2017 66
 LINK BUDGET
The link equation in its general form
is:

C/N = EIRP - L + G - 10log(kTB) (2)

Where:
EIRP = Equivalent Isotropically Radiated
Power (dBW)
L = Transmission Losses (dB)

G = Gain of the receive antenna (dB)

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 LINK BUDGET
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power:

The gain of a directive antenna results in a

more economic use of the RF power supplied
by the source. Thus, the EIRP is expressed
as a function of the antenna transmit gain
GT and the transmitted power PT fed to the
antenna.

EIRPdBW = 10 log PT dBw + GT dBi (3)

Where:
PT dBw = antenna input power in dBW
GT dBi = transmit antenna gain in dBi
6/10/2017 68
 LINK BUDGET
Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power:

Maximum power flux density at distance r from a transmitting

antenna of gain G:
M = (G*Ps) / (4r2)
An isotropic (omnidirectional) radiator would generate this flux
density
EIRP is defined as G*Ps
When expressed as dBW, Ps in W, G in dB:
EIRP = Ps + G
e.g., transmit power of 6 W and antenna gain of 48.2 dB:
EIRP = 10 log 6 + 48.2 = 56 dBW

Free Space Loss: PR = EIRP + GR - 10 log (4r/)2 (dBW)

6/10/2017 69
 Receiver Power Equation

6/10/2017 70
 Antenna Gain.

The antenna gain, referred to an

isotropic radiator, is defined by:

GdBi = 10log()+20log(f)+20log(d)+20.4 dB
(4)
Where:
= antenna efficiency (Typical values are 0.55 -
0.75)
d = antenna diameter in m
f = operating frequency in GHz
6/10/2017 71
6/10/2017 72
 Transmission losses,
generally consist of four components:

L = Lo + Latm + Lrain + Ltrack (5)

Where:
Lo = free Space Loss
Latm = atmospheric losses
Lrain = attenuation due to rain effects
Ltrack = losses due to antenna tracking errors
6/10/2017 73
 LINK BUDGET
If an isotropic antenna radiates a power PT, the beam
power will spread as a sphere in which the antenna
is the center. The power at a distance D from the
transmission point is given by the next equation.
W = PT/4D2. . . . . (W/m2) (6)
As the transmit antenna focuses the energy (i.e., has
a gain), the equation changes to:

W = GTPT/4D2. . . . . (W/m2) (7)

6/10/2017 74
 LINK BUDGET

or
WdBW/m2 = EIRPdBW - 20 log D 71 dB (8)

Where:
GTPT = EIRP
W = illumination level
D = distance in km
71 dB = 10 log (4*106)

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6/10/2017 76
 LINK BUDGET
As a receiver antenna 'collects' the signal, the amount
of 'collected' signal will depend on the receiver
antenna size. The received power PR will be:
PR = W*Ae (9)
Where:
Ae = effective aperture of the receive antenna
= (2/4)/GR
Then,
PR = [GTPT/4D2]*[(2/4)/GR] (10)
PR = GTPT*(/4D)2*GR (11)
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 LINK BUDGET
The expression [4D/]2 is known as the basic free
space loss Lo. The basic free space loss is
expressed in decibels as:
Lo = 20log(D) + 20log(f) + 92.5 dB (12)
Where:
D = distance in km between transmitter and receiver,
or slant range
f = frequency in GHz
92.5 dB = 20 log {(4*109*103)/c}

6/10/2017 78
 Free Space Loss
FSL = 10 log (4pr/l)2
in dBW , FSL = 32.4 + 20 log r + 20 log
e.g., ES to satellite is 42,000 km, is 6 GHz, what is FSL?
FSL = 32.4 + 20 log 42000 + 20 log 6000 = 200.4 dB
Very large loss!!
e.g., EIRP = 56 dBW, receive antenna gain 50 dB
PR = 56 + 50 - 200.4 = -94.4 dBW = 355 pW
Other sources of losses
Feeder losses
Antenna misalignment losses
Fixed atmospheric and ionospheric losses
Effects of rain
PR = EIRP + GR - Losses, in dBW

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 Path Loss

Depends on:
Distance and frequency
About 200 dB at C-band
About 206 dB at Ku-band

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 LINK BUDGET
Expressing equation (11) in dB:

PR dBW = EIRP - Lo + GR (13)

In equation (13), if GR were the gain for a 1m2

antenna with 100 percent efficiency, PR will become
the illumination level per unit area in dBW/m2;
therefore, the illumination level in equation (8) can
also be expressed as:
WdBW/m2 = EIRP - Lo + G1m2 (14)
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 Atmospheric Losses
Losses in the signal can also occur through
absorption by atmospheric gases such as
oxygen and water vapor. This characteristic
depends on the frequency, elevation angle,
altitude above sea level, and absolute
humidity. At frequencies below 10 GHz, the
effect of atmospheric absorption is negligible.
Its importance increases with frequencies above
10 GHz, especially for low elevation angles.
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 Atmospheric Losses

Table shows an example of the mean value of

atmospheric losses for a 10-degree elevation
angle.

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 Atmospheric Attenuation

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 Atmospheric Attenuation

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 Atmospheric Absorption
Contributing Factors:
Molecular oxygen Constant
Uncondensed water vapor
Rain
Fog and clouds Depend on
weather
Snow and hail
Effects are frequency dependent
Molecular oxygen absorption peaks at 60 GHz
Water molecules peak at 21 GHz
Decreasing elevation angle will also increase
absorption loss

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 Atmospheric Absorption

1% of the time, rain attenuation exceeds 0.3 dB

(99% of the time, it is less than or equal to 0.3 dB)
0.5% of the time, it exceeds 0.5 dB
0.1% of the time, it exceeds 1.9 dB

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 Sky-Noise and Frequency Bands

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 Transmission Losses

Up-Link (Geosync)
Up-link = 6.175 GHz, D = 36,000 km
Path loss is a function of frequency and distance minus
transmitter and receiver antenna gain
Loss = 132.7 - 20 log dt - 20 log dr
dt transmitter antenna: 30 m
dr satellite receiver antenna: 1.5 m
Loss = 132.7 - 29.5 - 3.5 = 94.7 dB
Transmitted pwr/received pwr = 2.95 x 109
Down-Link
Down-link = 3.95 GHz
Footprint of antenna affects its gain; wide area footprint yields a
lower gain, narrow footprint a higher gain
Loss = 136.6 - 20 log dt - 20 log dr
Loss = 136.6 - 3.5 - 29.5 = 103.6 dB

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 Rain Effects

An important climatic effect on a satellite link is

the rainfall. Rain results in attenuation of radio
waves by scattering and by absorption of energy
from the wave.
Rain attenuation increases with the frequency,
being worse for Ku-band than for C-band.
Enough extra power must be transmitted to
overcome the additional attenuation induced by
rain to provide adequate link availability.

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 Tracking Losses

When a satellite link is established, the ideal situation

is to have the Earth station antenna aligned for
maximum gain, but normal operation shows that
there is a small degree of misalignment which
causes the gain to drop by a few tenths of a dB.
The gain reduction can be estimated from the
antenna size, the tracking type, and accuracy.
This loss must be considered for the uplink and
downlink calculations.

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 Tracking Losses
Earth Station Performance Characteristic (C-band, Antenna Efficiency 70%)

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 Tracking Losses

Earth Station Performance Characteristic (Ku-band, Antenna Efficiency 60%)

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 Typical Losses

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 Typical Losses (4/6 GHz)

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 System Noise Temperature

The system noise temperature of an Earth station

consists of the receiver noise temperature, the
noise temperature of the antenna, including the
feed and waveguides, and the sky noise picked up
by the antenna.
Tsystem = Tant/L + (1 - 1/L)To + Te (15)
Where:
L = feed loss in numerical value
Te= receiver equivalent noise temperature
To= standard temperature of 290K
Tant = antenna equivalent noise temperature as
provided by the manufacturer
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 Noise
Shannons Law: B = BN log2 (PR / PN + 1)
Where B = information-carrying capacity of the link (bits/unit bandwidth)
BN = usable bandwidth (hertz)
PR/PN must not get too small!
Noise power usually quoted in terms of noise temperature: PN = k TN BN
The noise temperature of a noise source is that temperature that produces
the same noise power over the same frequency range: TN = PN / k BN
Noise density (noise per hertz of b/w): N0 = PN / BN = k TN
Carrier-to-Noise: C/N0 = PR / N0 = PR / k TN : EIRP + G/T - k - Losses in dB
Receiver antenna figure of merit: increases
with antenna diameter and frequency;
More powerful xmit implies cheaper receiver
Sun, Moon, Earth, Galactic
Noise, Cosmic Noise, Sky
Noise, Atmospheric Noise,
Man-made Noise

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 Noise Sources
System Noise
Received power is very small, in picowatts
Thermal noise from random motion of electrons
Antenna noise: antenna losses + sky noise (background microwave radiation)
Amplifier noise temperature: energy absorption manifests itself as heat, thus
generating thermal noise
Carrier-to-Noise Ratio
C/N = PR - PN in dB
PN = k TN BN
C/N = EIRP + GR - LOSSES - k -TS - BN
where k is Boltzmans constant, TS is system noise temperature, TN is equivalent
noise temperature, BN is the equivalent noise bandwidth
Carrier to noise power density (noise power per unit b/w):
C/N0 = EIRP + G/T - Losses - k

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 Antenna Noise Temperature

The noise power into the receiver, (in this case the LNA),
due to the antenna is equivalent to that produced by a
matched resistor at the LNA input at a physical temperature
of Tant.
If a body is capable of absorbing radiation, then the body
can generate noise. Thus the atmosphere generates some
noise. This also applies to the Earth surrounding a
receiving ground station antenna. If the main lobe of an
antenna can be brought down to illuminate the ground, the
system noise temperature would increase by approximately
290K.

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 Antenna Noise Temperature
Noise Temperature of an Antenna as a Function of Elevation Angle

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 Antenna Temperature

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 Figure of Merit (G/T)
In every transmission system, noise is a factor that
greatly influences the whole link quality.

The G /TdBK is known as the "goodness"

measurement of a receive system.

This means that providing the Earth station meets

the required G/T specification, INTELSAT will
provide enough power from the satellite to meet the
characteristic of every service.

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 Figure of Merit (G/T)

G/T is expressed in dB relative to 1K. The same

system reference point, such as the receiver input,
for both the gain and noise temperature must be
used.
G/T = Grx - 10log(Tsys) (16)

Where:
Grx = receive gain in dB
Tsys = system noise temperature in K

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 Carrier to Noise Ratio
In the link equation, by unfolding the kTB product under the
logarithm, the link equation becomes:

C/N = EIRP - L+ G - 10log(k) - 10log(T) - 10log(B) (17)

The difference, G - 10logT, is the figure of merit:

C/N = EIRP - L+ G/T - 10log(k) - 10log(B) (18)

Where:
L = transmission losses
G/T = figure of merit of the receiver
k = Boltzmann constant
B = carrier occupied bandwidth

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 Carrier to Noise Ratio
Because the receiver bandwidth (B) is often dependent on
the modulation format, isolate the link power parameters by
normalizing out the bandwidth dependence. The new
relation is known as Carrier-to-Noise Density ratio (C/No).

C/No = EIRP - L + G/T - 10log(k) (19)

Note that:
C/N = C/T - 10logkB (20)
Expressing C/T as a function of C/N, and replacing C/N with
the right side of the link equation, results:
C/T = EIRP - L + G/T (21)

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 Carrier to Noise Ratio

The ratio C/No allow us to compute directly the

receiver Bit energy-to-noise density ratio as:

Eb/No = C/No - 10log(digital rate) (22)

The term "digital rate" is used here because Eb/No

can refer to different points with different rates in
the same modem.

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 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

Example Calculation

12 GHz frequency, free space loss = 206 dB,

antenna pointing loss = 1 dB,
atmospheric absorption = 2 dB
Receiver G/T = 19.5 dB/K,
receiver feeder loss = 1 dB
EIRP = 48 dBW
Calculation:
C/N0 = -206 - 1 - 2 + 19.5 - 1 + 48 + 228.6 = 86.1
(Note that Boltzmanns constant k
= 1.38x10-23 J/K = -228.6 dB)

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 Link Budget
The interpretation of equation (21) is that a given
C/T required by a certain type of carrier and quality
of service, can be obtained for different
combinations of EIRP and G/T.
EIRP represents the resource usage and finally is
reflected in the operating costs because higher
satellite EIRP means higher operating costs. On the
other hand the G/T represents the capital
expenditure, because higher G/T means larger
antenna and/or better LNA, reflected in the cost of
the equipment.

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 Link Budget
Note that in some cases the Earth station G/T
could be improved by using a better LNA. For
example, an Earth station with a receive gain of 53
dBi,
antenna noise of 25K at 25 in C-band, feeder
noise temperature of 5K and LNA noise
temperature of 80K would have:

G/T = Gant -10log(Tant+Tfeed+TLNA) (23)

G/T = 53-10log(25 + 5 + 80) = 32.6 dB/K

This antenna would be classified as a standard B

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antenna. 109
 Link Budget
Removing the LNA and replacing it with a 30K
LNA, the G/T is:

G/T = 53 - 10log(25 + 5 + 30) = 35.2 dB/K

This reclassifies the antenna as a standard A.

For elevation angles below 25, the antenna noise

would increase and the overall G/T would be too
low for standard A.

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 Simplified Link Equation
10 log (C/N0) = PS + GS - FSL + GR - TR - k - L (dB) where:

C/N0: ratio of signal pwr to noise pwr after being received (Hz)
PS: RF pwr delivered to transmitting antenna (dBW)
GS: Gain of the transmitting antenna relative to isotropic rad (dBi)
FSL: Free space loss (dB)
GR: Gain of the receiving antenna (dBi)
TR: Composite noise temperature of the receiver (dBK)
k: Boltzmanns constant (-288.6 dBW/K-Hz)
L: Composite of propagation loss (dB)
G = 10 log (2D2/2) dBi
: antenna efficiency, D: diameter
FSL = 10 log [(4r)2/2] dB
r is distance
Path loss and antenna gain increase with square of radio frequency

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 Frequency vs. Losses vs. BER
Higher transmission frequency has the
advantage of requiring a smaller receiver
antenna BUT suffers from higher attenuation
losses through atmosphere
To achieve the same C/N0 performance,
which is related to BER, actually needs a
LARGER antenna than same transmission
power at a lower frequency
But still frequency allocation advantages for
high frequencies solution is to use higher
transmitter power at the satellite and earth
station for the higher frequency
transmissions
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 Time Delay

The total Earth-satellite-Earth path length may be

as much as 84,000km thus giving a one-way
propagation delay of 250ms. The effect of this
delay on telephone conversations, where a
500ms gap can occur between one person asking
a question and hearing the other person reply.

This phenomenon is minimized with the use of

"Echo cancelers". With geostationary satellites, a
two-hop operation is sometimes unavoidable and
results in a delay of over 1 second.

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 Geographical Advantage
A station which is located near the center
of a satellite beam (footprint), will have an
advantage in the received signal
compared to another located at the edge
of the same beam of the satellite.

The satellite antenna pattern has a

defined beam edge to which the values of
the satellite Equivalent Isotropically
Radiated Power (EIRP), Gain-to-Noise
Temperature ratio (G/T), and flux density
are referenced.

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 Geographical Advantage

Be am Pe ak 48. 7 dBW

e . i. r. p. Le ve ls
47. 7 dBW
46. 7 dBW
45. 7 dBW
44. 7 dBW
43. 7 dBW
42. 7 dBW
41. 7 dBW
7/04/0515M
40. 7 dBW

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 Sun Interference

Sun interference is due to the satellite, the

Sun, and the Earth station antenna being
aligned, causing the antenna to receive
solar noise.

The Sun represents a transmitter with

significantly more power than the satellite,
and the solar noise will overwhelm the
signals coming from the satellite, causing
a total loss of traffic.

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 Spring

Summer

SUN
INTERFERENCE
Autumn

Winter

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 Sun Outage

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 Sun
Outage

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 Tropospheric Scintillation

At unpredictable times the levels of

receive signals from the satellite rapidly
fluctuate up and down. This is called
scintillation.
Scintillation is brought about by the
turbulent mixing of air mass at different
temperatures and humidities, and by the
random addition of particles such as rain,
ice, and moisture.

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