Kinematics of

Fluid Flows
Kinematics:
The study of motion.

Fluid kinematics:
The study of how
fluids flow and how
to describe fluid
motion.
The relationship between pressure
and flow velocity is important in
many engineering applications.
Blood pressure (flow of blood
through veins and arteries)
Weather forecasts (pressure
readings of atmospheric flow patterns)
Stirring a cup of coffee (pressure
variations enhance mixing)
Design of tall structures (pressure
forces from the wind)
Aircraft design (lift and drag)
Flow systems (heating and air
conditioning)
Summary/
Outline
Objectives:
Mathematically describe the motion of a fluid
Express the acceleration and vorticity of a fluid
particle given the velocity components
Describe the deformation of a fluid particle
Classify various fluid flows. Is a flow viscous, is it
turbulent, is it incompressible, is it a uniform flow?
Present several examples and numerous problems
that demonstrate how fluid flows are described and
how flows are classified
Descriptions of Fluid Motion
Lagrangian description: Description of motion
where individual particles are observed as a
function of time
Descriptions of Fluid Motion cont:
Eulerian description: Description of motion
where the flow properties are functions of both
space and time
Different Lines in Describing a
Flow Field
Pathline: The actual path traveled by an
individual fluid particle over some time
period.
Different Lines in Describing a
Flow Field cont.
Streakline: The locus of fluid particles that
have passed sequentially through a
prescribed point in the flow.
Different Lines in Describing a
Flow Field cont.
Streamline: a line in the flow where the
velocity vector is tangent to the streamline

Streamtube: A tube
whose walls are
Streamlines
Acceleration of a fluid particle is found by
considering a particular particle. Its velocity
changes from V(t) at time t to V (t + dt).
Angular Velocity: the average velocity of two
perpendicular line segments of a fluid
particle
Vorticity: Twice the Angular Velocity
Classification of Fluid Flows
Uniform Flow
The velocity does not change along a fluid path.

Nonuniform Flow
The velocity changes along a fluid path.
Classification of Fluid Flows cont.
Steady Flow: The velocity at a given point on
a fluid path does not change with time.

Unsteady Flow: The velocity at a given point

on a fluid path changes with time.
Classification of Fluid Flows cont.
Laminar Flow: Well-ordered state of flow in
which adjacent flow layers move smoothly
with respect to each other.

Turbulent Flow: Unsteady flow

characterized by intense cross-stream mixing
Classification of Fluid Flows cont
Incompressible Flow: The density of each
Fluid particle remains constant.

Compressible Flow: Density Variations

influence the flow
Classification of Fluid Flows cont.
Viscous Flow: The effects of viscosity are
significant

Inviscid Flow: Viscous effects do not

significantly influence the flow.
Dimensional Flows
One- Dimensional

Two- Dimensional

Three-Dimensional
Description of Fluid
Flows
LAGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION
EULERIAN DESCRIPTION
Lagrangian
Description

Pieces of the fluid are

tagged. The fluid flow properties are
determined by tracking the motion and
properties of the particles as they move
in time. Joseph-Louis Lagrange
In the example shown, particles A and B have
been identified. Position vectors and velocity
vectors are shown at one instant of time for
each of these marked particles. As the
particles move in the flow field, their positions
and velocities change with time, as seen in
the animated diagram.
Eulerian
Description

The Eulerian Description is one in which a

control volume is defined, within which fluid
flow properties of interest are expressed
as fields.
Leonhard Euler
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, individual fluid
particles are not identified. Instead, a control volume is
defined, as shown in the diagram. Pressure, velocity,
acceleration, and all other flow properties are described
as fields within the control volume. In other words, each
property is expressed as a function of space and time, as
shown for the velocity field in the diagram.
In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, one is not concerned
about the location or velocity of any particular particle, but
rather about the velocity, acceleration, etc. of whatever
particle happens to be at a particular location of interest at a
particular time. Since fluid flow is a continuum phenomenon,
at least down to the molecular level, the Eulerian description
is usually preferred in fluid mechanics.
Note, however, that the physical laws such as Newton's laws
and the laws of conservation of mass and energy apply
directly to particles in a Lagrangian description. Hence, some
translation or reformulation of these laws is required for use
with an Eulerian description.
 Pressure field - An example of a fluid flow
variable expressed in Eulerian terms is the
pressure. Rather than following the pressure of
an individual particle, a pressure field is
introduced, i.e.
p = p(x,y,z,t).
Velocity field - An example of a fluid flow variable
expressed in Eulerian terms is the velocity. Rather than
following the velocity of an individual particle, a
velocity field is introduced, i.e.

Acceleration field - An example of a fluid flow

variable expressed in Eulerian terms is the
acceleration. Rather than following the
acceleration of an individual particle, an
acceleration fieldis introduced, i.e.
EULARIAN VS LAGRANGIAN

It is generally more common to use Eulerian

approach to fluid flows. Measuring water
temperature, or pressure at a point in a
pipe. Lagrangian methods sometimes used
in experiments. Throwing tracers into
moving water bodies to determine currents
(see movie Twister). X-ray opaque tracers in
human blood. Bird migration example.
Ornithologists with binoculars count
migrating birds moving past a (Euler) or
scientists place radio transmitters on the
birds (Lagrange).
 Either description method is valid in fluid
mechanics, but the Eulerian description is
usually preferred because there are
simply too many particles to keep track
of in a Lagrangian description
Methods of Visualizing
Fluid Flows

STREAMLINE
STREAKLINE
PATHLINE
Streamlines,
streaklines and
pathlines are used
in the visualization
of fluid flow.
Streamlines mainly
used in analytic
work, streaklines
and pathlines
used in
experimental
work.
 STREAMLINE

A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given

instant of time. (A streamline is an instantaneous pattern.) For example, consider
simple shear flow between parallel plates. At some instant of time, a streamline
can be drawn by connecting the velocity vector lines such that the streamline
is everywhere parallel to the local velocity vector. In this example, streamlines
are simply horizontal lines.
 STREAKLINE

A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a

prescribed point in space. (A streakline is an integrated pattern.) For example,
consider simple shear flow between parallel plates. A streakline is formed by
injecting dye into the fluid at a fixed point in space. As time marches on, the
streakline gets longer and longer, and represents an integrated history of the
dye streak. In this example, streaklines are simply horizontal lines.
 PATHLINE

A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given (marked) fluid particle. (A

pathline is an integrated pattern.) For example, consider simple shear flow
between parallel plates. A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given
(marked) fluid particle. A pathline represents an integrated history of where the
fluid particle has been. In this example, pathlines are simply horizontal lines.
Acceleration
Acceleration
The acceleration of a fluid particle is found by considering a
particular particle shown in the figure.
z
V(t + dt)
dV

V(t)
V(t) V(t + dt)

=

x
Velocity vector V
= + + wk = , , ,

= + + +

= + + + = = =

= + + +

= + + + = + + +

= + + +


= = + + +

Substantial Derivative or Material Derivative

It is given a special name and special symbol (D/Dt instead of d/dt) because
we followed a particular fluid particle, that is, we followed the substance (or
material).

It represents the relationship between a Lagrangian derivative in which a

quantity depends on time t and Eulerian derivative in which a quantity
depends on position (x, y, z, t).

It can be used with other dependent variables; for example, DT/Dt would
represent the rate of change of the temperature of a fluid as we followed the
particle along.

= + + +

The time derivative term on the right side of the equations is

called the local acceleration and the remaining terms on the
right side form the convective acceleration.
In a pipe, local acceleration results if, for example, a valve is being
opened or closed; and convective acceleration occurs in the vicinity of a
change in the pipe geometry, such as a pipe contraction or an elbow.
 2
=+ + 2 + +
2

Acceleration of a particle to a fixed frame

If the acceleration of all fluid particles is given by A = a in a selected

reference frame, it is inertial reference frame.
If A a, it is a noninertial reference frame.
 z

S r a

V
y

Motion relative to noninertial reference frame

Angular Velocity and
Vorticity
A fluid flow may be thought of as the motion of a collection of fluid particles. As
a particle travels along it may rotate or deform.

Consider a moving fluid element which is initially rectangular.

If the velocity varies significantly across the extent of the element, its corners
will not move in unison, and the element will rotate and become distorted.
There are certain flows, or regions of a flow, in which the fluid particles do
not rotate; such flows are of special importance, particularly in flows
around objects, and are referred to as irrotational flows.

+
D 2

v +
2 2

A B dy
u

C
Fluid particle occupying an

2 infinitesimal parallelepiped at
a particular instant.

dx
 Let us consider a small fluid particle that occupies an infinitesimal volume that
has the xy-face as shown in the figure.

The angular velocity about the z axis is the average of the angular velocity of
line segment AB and line segment CD.

=
=


+
+ 2 2
2 2 =
=

=
=

1
= +
2
Considering the xz-face Considering the yz-face
1
1 = 1
= 2 =
2 2
A cork placed in a water flow in a wide
channel (the x-y plane) would rotate with
an angular velocity about the z-axis, given
by the equation,

1
=
2
Vorticity
Vorticity is a pseudovector field that describes the local spinning motion of a
continuum near some point (the tendency of something to rotate), as would be
seen by an observer located at that point and traveling along with the flow.

It is common to define the vorticity to be twice the angular velocity.

Its components are then,

= = =

An irrotational flow possesses no vorticity; the cork mentioned above

would not rotate in an irrotational flow.
The deformation of the particle of the figure is the rate of change of the angle
that line segment AB makes with line segment CD. If AB is rotating with an
angular velocity different from that of CD, the particle is deforming.

The deformation is represented by the rate-of-

strain tensor; its component in the xy-plane
is given by 1
= ( )
2

1
= ( + )
2

For the xz-plane and the yz-plane we have

1 1
= ( + ) = ( + )
2 2
The fluid particle could also deform by being stretched or compressed in a
particular direction. This normal rate of strain is measured by

=


+
2 2
= =

The symmetric rate-of-strain tensor can be displayed as

=

 A flow field is best characterized by its
velocity distribution, and thus a flow is
said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three primary dimensions,
respectively.

A typical fluid flow involves a three-

dimensional geometry, and the velocity may
vary in all three dimensions, rendering the
flow three dimensional [V (x, y, z) in
rectangular or V (r, u, z) in cylindrical
coordinates].
 The velocity profile develops fully and remains unchanged
after some distance from the inlet (about 10 pipe
diameters in turbulent flow, and less in laminar pipe flow,
as in Fig. 124) and the flow in this region is said to be
fully developed. The fully developed flow in a circular pipe
is one-dimensional since the velocity varies in the radial
r-direction but not in the angular u- or axial z-directions.
That is, the velocity profile is the same at any axial z-
location, and it is symmetric about the axis of the pipe.
 Note that the dimensionality of the flow also
depends on the choice of coordinate system and
its orientation. The pipe flow discussed, for
example, is one-dimensional in cylindrical
coordinates, but two-dimensional in Cartesian
coordinatesillustrating the importance of
choosing the most appropriate coordinate
system.

Also note that even in this simple flow, the

velocity cannot be uniform across the cross
section of the pipe because of the no-slip
condition.
 However, the variation of velocity in certain directions
can be small relative to the variation in other
directions and can be ignored with negligible error. In
such cases, the flow can be modeled conveniently as
being one- or two-dimensional, which is easier to
analyze.

Consider steady flow of a fluid entering from a large

tank into a circular pipe. The fluid velocity everywhere
on the pipe surface is zero because of the no-slip
condition, and the flow is two-dimensional in the
entrance region of the pipe since the velocity changes
in both the r- and z-directions, but not in the u-
direction.
 However, at a well-rounded entrance to the pipe,
the velocity profile may be approximated as being
nearly uniform across the pipe, since the velocity
is nearly constant at all radii except very close to
the pipe wall.

A flow may be approximated as two-dimensional

when the aspect ratio is large and the flow does
not change appreciably along the longer dimension.
 For example, the flow of air over a car
antenna can be considered two-dimensional
except near its ends since the antennas
length is much greater than its diameter,
and the airflow hitting the antenna is fairly
uniform (Fig. 125).
 When two fluid layers move relative to each
other, a friction force develops between them
and the slower layer tries to slow down the
faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is
quantified by the fluid property viscosity, which
is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid.
Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between
the molecules in liquids and by molecular
collisions in gases.
There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus
all fluid flows involve viscous effects to some
degree. Flows in which the frictional effects
are significant are called viscous flows.
 In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where
viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or
pressure forces.

Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions

greatly simplifies the analysis without much loss in
accuracy. The fluid sticks to the plate on both sides
because of the no-slip condition, and the thin boundary
layer in which the viscous effects are significant near the
plate surface is the viscous flow region. The region of
flow on both sides away from the plate and largely
unaffected by the presence
 An inviscid flow is the flow of an ideal fluid that
is assumed to have no viscocity. In fluid
dynamics there are problems that are easily
solved by using the simplifying assumption of an
inviscid flow.

The flow of fluids with low values

of viscocity agree closely with inviscid
flow everywhere except close to the fluid
boundary where the boundary layer plays a
significant role
 The assumption of inviscid flow is generally
valid where viscous forces are small in
comparison to the inertial forces. Such flow
situations can be identified as flows with a
Reynolds number much greater than one. The
assumption that viscous forces are negligible
can be used to simplify the NavierStokes
solution to the Euler equations.
 While throughout much of a flow-field
the effect of viscosity may be very
small, a number of factors make the
assumption of negligible viscosity
invalid in many cases.
Viscosity cannot be neglected near
fluid boundaries because of the
presence of aboundary layer, which
enhances the effect of even a small
amount of viscosity.
Turbulent and Laminar
Flow
Classification of Flow
 Laminar
A flow that is characterized to have a:
Uniform or consistent velocity in all
points
A smooth flow
Particles do not cross each other
Re 2000 (2100)
Turbulent
A flow that is characterized to have a:
Interrupted flow
Velocity at any point is not
constant
Particles cross each other
Examples are: blood circulation
inside arteries, oil transportation
inside pipelines, lava movement,
atmosphere, etc.
Re > 2000 (2100)
 Osborne Reynold

Reynolds
Number
British engineer, physicist and
educator best known for his work in
hydraulics and hydrodynamics . Where :
- mean velocity (m/s)
Formulated the LUBRICATION (1886)
- pipe diameter (m)
Also studied wave engineering and v- kinematic viscosity
tidal motions of the fluid (m2/s)
- absolute or dynamic
viscosity (Pa-s)
density of the fluid
(kg/m3)
Sample Problem 1 Sample Problem 2 (# 7-2) 3 (# 7-3
Sample Problem
(# 7-1)
Water having kinematic viscosity v = 1.3 106 m2 /s flows in a
100-mm diameter pipe at a velocity of 4.5 m/s. Is the flow laminar
or turbulent?

for laminar
condition Re 2000
At
Recritical Oil of
= =velocity in pipes, Re specific
= gravity 0.80 flows in a 200 mm diameter
v 2
pipe. Find the critical velocity. Use = 8.14 10 Pa-s.

2000
Re = v = where: = Q/A
4.5(0.1)
= 6 For laminar flow conditions, what size of pipe will deliver 6 liters
1.3
10
Re = (=) per second of oil having kinematic viscosity of 6.1 106 m2 /s ?
= v =
Re = v346,153.85
> 2000
v
0 2 1000 0 8
2000 = ( . )( )( . )
the flow
8.14
0.006 10is
2
2
4
==6.11.0175
2000
turbulent 106
m/s

D = 0.62618 m or 626.18, Say 626 mm

Velocity Distribution in Pipes
Laminar Flow
- follows a parabolic curve with zero
velocity at the walls.
Where :
u - velocity at distance r
u= - - unit weight of the fluid
4
- head lost in the pipe
= - distance from the center
1 - radius of the pipe

2
u2= (1 - - absolute viscosity
- pipe length
) - centreline or max.
u2=
velocity
- average velocity
Velocity Distribution in Pipes
Turbulent Flow
- varies with Reynolds number with zero
velocity at the wall and increase more rapidly
for a short distance
from the walls.
u = 5.75


log
2 Where:
=
8
- maximum shearing stress
(1 + 1.33 ) friction factor
=
mean velocity

= 3.75

 To Find
f
Darcy-Weisbach
Laminar Flow Where:
Formula
642
64 hf minor head loss in the

hf ==
2
=

pipe
- friction factor
For non-circular pipe:
- length of the pipe
32
=h4Rf = - mean or average
R= 2
, velocity of flow
, - diameter of the pipe
- gravitational
acceleration
R - hydraulic radius
Sample Problem 4 (# 7-
18)
Oil of specific gravity 0.9 and dynamic viscosity = 0.04 Pa-s flows at the rate
of 60 liters per second through 50 m of 120-mm-diameter pipe. If the head
lost is 6 m, determine (a) the mean velocity of flow, (b) the type of flow, (c)
the friction factor , (d) the velocity at the center line of the pipe
(c) Friction factor
(a) Mean velocity 2
hf = 2
= Q/A
0.060 (50)(5.305)2
= 6=
2
0.12 2(9.81)(0.12)
4
= 0.01004
= 5.305 m/s
(d) Centerline velocity
(b) Type of flow
Re =
c = (1+1.33 )
= 5.305(0.12)(1000)
0.04
0.9
= 5.305(1+1.33 0.01004)
Re = 14,323.5 > c = 6.012 m/s
Sample Problem 5 (# 7-
22)
Glycerin (sp. gr. = 1.26 and = 1.49 Pa-s) flows through a rectangular
conduit 300 mm by 450 mm at the rate of 160 liters per sec.
(a) Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
(b) Determine the head lost per kilometre length of pipe

(a) Non-circular conduits: D = 4R (b) For laminar flow

64
Re = =
0.160 64
= Q/A = ( )= = 360.75
0.3(0.45)
1.185 m/s
4(0.30.45)
= 0.1774
D = 4R = = 2
4(0.9)
2(0.45+0.3) h=
2
1.185(0.36)(1000)(1.26) 0.1774(1000)(1.185)2
Re = 1.49
= 2(9.81)(0.36)
Re = 360.75 < 2000 (laminar) h = 35.27 m
(ISOCHORIC FLOW)
 Fluid motion with negligible changes
in density.
No fluid is truly incompressible,
since even liquids have their density
increased through the application of
sufficient pressure.
Density changes in a flow will be
negligible if the Mach Number (Ma)
of the flow is small.
MACH NUMBER (Ernst
Mach)

Ma = < 0.3

where V = velocity of a fluid

c = speed of sound of a fluid =

It tells how fast the object is moving, if it is moving equal

to or faster than the speed of sound.

Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
 Air at 68F (20C) has a speed of sound
780 mi/h (340 m/s). Thus inequality
indicates that air is incompressible at
velocities up to 228 mi/h (102 m/s).
It is nearly impossible to attain Ma=0.3
in liquid flow because of the very high
pressures required. Thus liquid flow is
incompressible.
 A flow is said to be incompressible if the
density of a fluid element does not
change during its motion. It is a property
of the flow and not of the fluid. The rate of
change of density of a material fluid
element is given by the material
derivative
 GOVERNING EQUATIONS
NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS FOR
INCOMPESSIBLE FLOW ARE:
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW IN 2D

Continuity

X-Momentum

Y-Momentum
SAMPLE PROBLEM
The velocity distribution for a
two-dimensional incompressible flow
is given by

u= 2 2 v= 2 2
+ +
Show that it satisfies continuity
The continuity equation for 2D Incompressible
flow

+ =0

Then
2
1 2
= 2 +
+ 2 ( 2 + 2 )2
 1 2 2
= 2 2
+ 2
+ ( + 2 )2

And their sum does equal to zero, satisfying

the continuity.
COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW
What is compressible flow?

Compressible flow (gas dynamics) is the

branch of fluid mechanics that deals
with flows having significant changes in
fluid density.

In compressibility the speed of greater

than 250 mph, the density of the air
changes.
 When a fluid flow is compressible, the
fluid density varies with its pressure.
Compressible flows are usually high
speed flows with mach numbers greater
than about 0.3. Examples includes,
Aerodynamics applications such as flow
over a wing or aircraft nacelle as well as
industrial applications such as flow
through a high-performance Valves.
What is mach?

Mach is the ratio of the speed of a body

to the speed of sound in the surrounding
medium. It is often used with a numeral
( as Mach 1, Mach 2, and etc.) to
indicate the speed of sound. And it is the
contribution of Ernst Walfred Josef
Wenzel Mach an Austrian physicist and
philosopher in Physics.
Ernst Mach (1839-
1916)
 The Speed of Sound is called Mach 1

Mach is commonly used to represent an

objects speed, such as an aircraft or a
missile, when it is travelling at the speed
of sound or at multiples of it.
 Incompressible flows do not have such a
variation of density. The key
differentiation between compressible and
incompressible is the velocity of the flow.
A fluid such as air that is moving slower
than mach 0.3 is considered
incompressible, even though it is a gas. A
gas that is run through a compressor is
not truly considered compressible unless
its velocity exceeds mach 0.3.
 Regimes of Flight

Mach Number below 1 means the flow

velocity is lower than the speed of
sound and the sound is subsonic.
Mach Number 1 means the flow velocity
is the speed of sound and the speed
around that is transonic.
Mach Number above 1 means the flow
velocity is higher than the speed of
sound and the speed is supersonic.
Mach Number more than 3 is called
 THE AIRCRAFT
FASTER
THAN
Mach 1 (Speed of
Sound)
Maximum Speed of Mach 1.6 (1,930Km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 2.35 ( 2,500
km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 2.5 (
2,655km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 2.5 (
2,655km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 2.83 (
3000km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 3.02 (
3,219km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 3.2 (
3,370km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 3.2 (
Maximum Speed of Mach 3.2 (
3,330km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 3.3 (
3,540km/h)
Maximum Speed of Mach 6.72 (
7,274km/h)
SOUND BARRIER
 The Speed of Sound is given as,

Where k = 1.4 for air, R = 287J/Kg.K or

gas constant, and T = reference
temperature ( in absolute units)
The Mach Number is given as,

M = V/c

where M is a mach number,

V is a gas velocity,
and c is the speed of sound.
Example #1.

Determine the speed of sound in Air

at 120 degree celsius.

C =
= (1.4)(287)(393)
C = 397.38 m/s