06 2 LossyCompression

Chapter 8
Lossy Compression Algorithms

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Distortion Measures
8.4 Quantization
8.5 Transform Coding
8.6 Wavelet-Based Coding
Fundamentals of Multimedia, Chapter 8
8.1 Introduction
Lossless compression algorithms do not deliver
compression ratios that are high enough. Hence,
most multimedia compression algorithms are
lossy.
What is lossy compression?

The compressed data is not the same as the original
data, but a close approximation of it.
Yields a much higher compression ratio than that of
lossless compression.
2 Li & Drew
8.2 Distortion Measures

The three most commonly used distortion measures in image compression are:
mean square error (MSE) 2,

N
1
2
N (x
n 1
n y n ) 2
(8.1)
where xn, yn, and N are the input data sequence, reconstructed data sequence, and length of the
data sequence respectively.
signal to noise ratio (SNR), in decibel units (dB),

x2
SNR 10 log10 2 (8.2)
d
where x2 is the average square value of the original data sequence and d2 is the MSE.
peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR),

x 2peak
PSNR 10 log10 (8.3)
2
d
3 Li & Drew
8.3 mean square error (MSE)
4 Li & Drew
8.4 Quantization
Definition : the process of mapping a large set
of input values to a (countable) smaller set.
Rounding and truncation are typical examples
of quantization processes.
Quantization is involved to some degree in
nearly all digital signal processing, as the
process of representing a signal in digital form
ordinarily involves rounding.
5 Li & Drew
8.4 Quantization
Quantization also forms the core of essentially
all lossy compression algorithms.
The difference between an input value and its
quantized value (such as round-off error) is
referred to as quantization error.
A device or algorithmic function that performs
quantization is called a quantizer. An analog-
to-digital converter is an example of a
quantizer.
6 Li & Drew
8.4 Quantization
Reduce the number of distinct output values to a
much smaller set.
Main source of the loss in lossy compression.
Three different forms of quantization.

Uniform: midrise and midtread quantizers.
Nonuniform: companded quantizer.
Vector Quantization.
7 Li & Drew
Uniform Scalar Quantization

A uniform scalar quantizer partitions the domain of input values into
equally spaced intervals, except possibly at the two outer intervals.
The output or reconstruction value corresponding to each interval is

taken to be the midpoint of the interval.
The length of each interval is referred to as the step size, denoted by

the symbol .
Two types of uniform scalar quantizers:
Midrise quantizers have even number of output levels.

Midtread quantizers have odd number of output levels, including zero
as one of them (see Fig. 8.2).
8 Li & Drew
For the special case where = 1, we can simply compute the output
values for these quantizers as:
Qmidrise ( x) x 0.5 (8.4)
Qmidtread ( x) x 0.5 (8.5)
Performance of an M level quantizer. Let B = {b0, b1, . . . , bM} be the

set of decision boundaries and Y = {y1, y2, . . . , yM} be the set of
reconstruction or output values.
Suppose the input is uniformly distributed in the interval

[Xmax,Xmax]. The rate of the quantizer is:
R log2 M (8.6)
9 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.2: Uniform Scalar Quantizers: (a) Midrise, (b) Midtread.
10 Li & Drew
Quantization Error of Uniformly

Distributed Source
Granular distortion: quantization error caused by the quantizer for
bounded input.
To get an overall figure for granular distortion, notice that decision boundaries
bi for a midrise quantizer are [(i 1), i], i = 1..M/2, covering positive data X
(and another half for negative X values).
Output values yi are the midpoints i/2, i = 1..M/2, again just considering the
positive data. The total distortion is twice the sum over the positive data, or
M
x 2i 1 2 X1
2 i 2
Dgran 2 dx (8.8)
i 1
( i 1) 2 max
Since the reconstruction values yi are the midpoints of each interval, the
quantization error must lie within the values [ , ].

2 2
11 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.4: Companded quantization.
Companded quantization is nonlinear.
As shown above, a compander consists of a compressor function G, a

uniform quantizer, and an expander function G1.
The two commonly used companders are the -law and A-law
companders.
12 Li & Drew
Vector Quantization (VQ)

According to Shannons original work on information
theory, any compression system performs better if it
operates on vectors or groups of samples rather than
individual symbols or samples.
Form vectors of input samples by simply concatenating

a number of consecutive samples into a single vector.
Instead of single reconstruction values as in scalar

quantization, in VQ code vectors with n components
are used. A collection of these code vectors form the
codebook.
13 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.5: Basic vector quantization procedure.

14 Li & Drew
8.5 Transform Coding

The rationale behind transform coding:
If Y is the result of a linear transform T of the input vector X in

such a way that the components of Y are much less correlated,
then Y can be coded more efficiently than X.
If most information is accurately described by the first few

components of a transformed vector, then the remaining
components can be coarsely quantized, or even set to zero, with
little signal distortion.
Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) will be studied first. In addition, we

will examine the Karhunen-Love Transform (KLT) which optimally
decorrelates the components of the input X.
15 Li & Drew
Spatial Frequency and DCT

Spatial frequency indicates how many times pixel values
change across an image block.
The DCT formalizes this notion with a measure of how

much the image contents change in correspondence to
the number of cycles of a cosine wave per block.
The role of the DCT is to decompose the original signal

into its DC and AC components; the role of the IDCT is
to reconstruct (re-compose) the signal.
16 Li & Drew
Definition of DCT:
Given an input function f(i, j) over two integer variables i and j
(a piece of an image), the 2D DCT transforms it into a new
function F(u, v), with integer u and v running over the same
range as i and j. The general definition of the transform is:
2 C (u) C (v) M 1 N 1 (2i 1)u (2 j 1)v

F (u, v)
MN

i 0 j 0
cos
2 M
cos
2 N
f (i, j ) (8.15)
where i, u = 0, 1, . . . ,M 1; j, v = 0, 1, . . . ,N 1; and the

constants C(u) and C(v) are determined by
2
if 0,
C ( ) 2 (8.16)

1 otherwise.
17 Li & Drew
2D Discrete Cosine Transform (2D DCT):

C (u) C (v) 7 7 (2i 1)u (2 j 1)v
F (u, v)
4
i 0 j 0
cos
16
cos
16
f (i, j ) (8.17)
where i, j, u, v = 0, 1, . . . , 7, and the constants C(u) and C(v) are

determined by Eq. (8.5.16).
2D Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (2D IDCT):

The inverse function is almost the same, with the roles of f(i, j) and
F(u, v) reversed, except that now C(u)C(v) must stand inside the
sums: 7 7
C (u ) C (v) (2i 1)u (2 j 1)v
f (i, j ) cos cos F (u , v) (8.18)
u 0 v 0
4 16 16
where i, j, u, v = 0, 1, . . . , 7.
18 Li & Drew
1D Discrete Cosine Transform (1D DCT):

C (u ) 7 (2i 1)u
F (u )
2 i 0
cos
16
f (i ) (8.19)
where i = 0, 1, . . . , 7, u = 0, 1, . . . , 7.
1D Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (1D IDCT):

7
(2i 1)u
f (i )
C (u )
cos F (u ) (8.20)
u 0
2 16
where i = 0, 1, . . . , 7, u = 0, 1, . . . , 7.
19 Li & Drew
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8.7: Examples of 1D Discrete Cosine Transform: (a) A DC signal f1(i), (b) An
AC signal f2(i).
20 Li & Drew
(c)
(d)
Fig. 8.7 (contd): Examples of 1D Discrete Cosine Transform: (c) f3(i) =
f1(i)+f2(i), and (d) an arbitrary signal f(i).
21 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.8 An example of 1D IDCT.

22 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.8 (contd): An example of 1D IDCT.

23 Li & Drew
The DCT is a linear transform:

In general, a transform T (or function) is linear, iff
T ( p q) T ( p) T (q) (8.21)
where and are constants, p and q are any

functions, variables or constants.
From the definition in Eq. 8.17 or 8.19, this

property can readily be proven for the DCT because
it uses only simple arithmetic operations.
24 Li & Drew
The Cosine Basis Functions

Function Bp(i) and Bq(i) are orthogonal, if
[ B (i)B (i)] 0
i
p q if p q (8.22)
Function Bp(i) and Bq(i) are orthonormal, if they are orthogonal and
[ B (i)B (i)] 1
i
p q if p q (8.23)
It can be shown that:

7
(2i 1) p (2i 1)q

i 0
cos
16
cos
16 0 if p q
7
C ( p) (2i 1) p C (q) (2i 1)q

i 0
2 cos
16

2
cos
16 1 if p q
25 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.9: Graphical Illustration of 8 8 2D DCT basis.

26 Li & Drew
2D Separable Basis
The 2D DCT can be separated into a sequence of two,
1D DCT steps:
7
(2 j 1)v
G(i, v) 1 C (v) cos f (i, j )
2 j 0
16 (8.24)
7
(2i 1)u
F (u, v) 1 C (u ) cos G (i, v) (8.25)
2 i 0
16
It is straightforward to see that this simple change saves

many arithmetic steps. The number of iterations
required is reduced from 8 8 to 8+8.
27 Li & Drew
8.6 Wavelet-Based Coding

The objective of the wavelet transform is to decompose the input
signal into components that are easier to deal with, have special
interpretations, or have some components that can be thresholded
away, for compression purposes.
We want to be able to at least approximately reconstruct the original

signal given these components.
The basis functions of the wavelet transform are localized in both

time and frequency.
There are two types of wavelet transforms: the continuous wavelet

transform (CWT) and the discrete wavelet transform (DWT).
28 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.17: A Mexican Hat Wavelet: (a) = 0.5, (b) its Fourier
transform.
29 Li & Drew
Wavelet Transform Example

Suppose we are given the following input sequence.
{xn,i} = {10, 13, 25, 26, 29, 21, 7, 15}
Consider the transform that replaces the original sequence with its pairwise
average xn1,i and difference dn1,i defined as follows:
x x
xn1,i n,2i n,2i 1
2
xn,2i xn,2i 1
dn 1,i
2
The averages and differences are applied only on consecutive pairs of input
sequences whose first element has an even index. Therefore, the number
of elements in each set {xn1,i} and {dn1,i} is exactly half of the number of
elements in the original sequence.
30 Li & Drew
Form a new sequence having length equal to that of the

original sequence by concatenating the two sequences
{xn1,i} and {dn1,i}. The resulting sequence is
{xn1,i, dn1,i} = {11.5, 25.5, 25, 11,1.5,0.5, 4,4}
This sequence has exactly the same number of elements as

the input sequence the transform did not increase the
amount of data.
Since the first half of the above sequence contain averages

from the original sequence, we can view it as a coarser
approximation to the original signal. The second half of this
sequence can be viewed as the details or approximation
errors of the first half.
31 Li & Drew
It is easily verified that the original sequence can be reconstructed

from the transformed sequence using the relations
xn, 2i = xn1, i + dn1, i
xn, 2i+1 = xn1, i dn1, i
This transform is the discrete Haar wavelet transform.
Fig. 8.12: Haar Transform: (a) scaling function, (b) wavelet function.
32 Li & Drew
2D Wavelet Transform
For an N by N input image, the two-dimensional DWT proceeds as follows:
Convolve each row of the image with h0[n] and h1[n], discard the odd numbered
columns of the resulting arrays, and concatenate them to form a transformed
row.
After all rows have been transformed, convolve each column of the result with
h0[n] and h1[n]. Again discard the odd numbered rows and concatenate the
result.
After the above two steps, one stage of the DWT is complete. The
transformed image now contains four subbands LL, HL, LH, and HH,
standing for low-low, high-low, etc.
The LL subband can be further decomposed to yield yet another level of

decomposition. This process can be continued until the desired number of
decomposition levels is reached.
33 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.19: The two-dimensional discrete wavelet transform

(a) One level transform, (b) two level transform.
34 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.13: Input image for the 2D Haar Wavelet Transform.

(a) The pixel values. (b) Shown as an 8 8 image.
35 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.14: Intermediate output of the 2D Haar

Wavelet Transform.
36 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.15: Output of the first level of the 2D Haar Wavelet

Transform.
37 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.16: A simple graphical illustration of Wavelet

Transform.
38 Li & Drew
2D Wavelet Transform Example

The input image is a sub-sampled version of the image
Lena. The size of the input is 1616. The filter used in
the example is the Antonini 9/7 filter set
Fig. 8.20: The Lena image: (a) Original 128 128 image.
(b) 16 16 sub-sampled image.
39 Li & Drew
The input image is shown in numerical form below.

I00 (x,y) =
First, we need to compute the analysis and synthesis high-pass

filters.
h1[n] = [-0.065, 0.041, 0.418, -0.788, 0.418, 0.041, -0.065]
h1[n] [0.038, 0.024,0.111,0.377, 0.853,0.377,0.111, 0.024, 0.038]
40 Li & Drew
Convolve the first row with both h0[n] and h1[n] and
discarding the values with odd-numbered index. The
results of these two operations are:
( I 00 (:, 0)* h0 [n]) 2 [245,156,171,183,184,173, 228;160],
( I 00 (:, 0)* h1[n]) 2 [ 30,3, 0, 7, 5, 16, 3,16].
Form the transformed output row by concatenating the

resulting coefficients. The first row of the transformed
image is then:
[245, 156, 171, 183, 184, 173, 228, 160,30, 3, 0, 7,5,16,3, 16]
Continue the same process for the remaining rows.

41 Li & Drew
The result after all rows have been processed

I 00 ( x, y )
42 Li & Drew
Apply the filters to the columns of the resulting image. Apply both h0[n] and h1[n] to
each column and discard the odd indexed results:
( I11 (0,:)* h0 [n]) 2 [353, 280, 269, 256, 240, 206,160,153]T
( I11 (0,:) * h1[n]) 2 [12,10, 7, 4, 2, 1, 43,16]T
Concatenate the above results into a single column and apply the same procedure to
each of the remaining columns.
I11 ( x, y)
43 Li & Drew
This completes one stage of the discrete wavelet transform.

We can perform another stage of the DWT by applying the
same transform procedure illustrated above to the upper
left 8 8 DC image of I12(x, y). The resulting two-stage
transformed image is
I 22 ( x, y )
44 Li & Drew
Fig. 8.21: Haar wavelet decomposition.

45 Li & Drew

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Chapter 8

Lossy Compression Algorithms

What is lossy compression?

8.2 Distortion Measures

mean square error (MSE) 2,

signal to noise ratio (SNR), in decibel units (dB),

peak signal to noise ratio (PSNR),

8.3 mean square error (MSE)

Main source of the loss in lossy compression.

Three different forms of quantization.

Uniform Scalar Quantization

The output or reconstruction value corresponding to each interval is

The length of each interval is referred to as the step size, denoted by

Two types of uniform scalar quantizers:

Midrise quantizers have even number of output levels.

Qmidrise ( x) x 0.5 (8.4)

Qmidtread ( x) x 0.5 (8.5)

Performance of an M level quantizer. Let B = {b0, b1, . . . , bM} be the

Suppose the input is uniformly distributed in the interval

Fig. 8.2: Uniform Scalar Quantizers: (a) Midrise, (b) Midtread.

Quantization Error of Uniformly

Fig. 8.4: Companded quantization.

Companded quantization is nonlinear.

As shown above, a compander consists of a compressor function G, a

Vector Quantization (VQ)

Form vectors of input samples by simply concatenating

Instead of single reconstruction values as in scalar

Fig. 8.5: Basic vector quantization procedure.

8.5 Transform Coding

If Y is the result of a linear transform T of the input vector X in

If most information is accurately described by the first few

Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) will be studied first. In addition, we

Spatial Frequency and DCT

The DCT formalizes this notion with a measure of how

The role of the DCT is to decompose the original signal

2 C (u) C (v) M 1 N 1 (2i 1)u (2 j 1)v

where i, u = 0, 1, . . . ,M 1; j, v = 0, 1, . . . ,N 1; and the

2D Discrete Cosine Transform (2D DCT):

where i, j, u, v = 0, 1, . . . , 7, and the constants C(u) and C(v) are

2D Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (2D IDCT):

1D Discrete Cosine Transform (1D DCT):

1D Inverse Discrete Cosine Transform (1D IDCT):

Fig. 8.8 An example of 1D IDCT.

Fig. 8.8 (contd): An example of 1D IDCT.

The DCT is a linear transform:

where and are constants, p and q are any

From the definition in Eq. 8.17 or 8.19, this

The Cosine Basis Functions

It can be shown that:

Fig. 8.9: Graphical Illustration of 8 8 2D DCT basis.

It is straightforward to see that this simple change saves

8.6 Wavelet-Based Coding

We want to be able to at least approximately reconstruct the original

The basis functions of the wavelet transform are localized in both

There are two types of wavelet transforms: the continuous wavelet

Wavelet Transform Example

{xn,i} = {10, 13, 25, 26, 29, 21, 7, 15}

Form a new sequence having length equal to that of the

{xn1,i, dn1,i} = {11.5, 25.5, 25, 11,1.5,0.5, 4,4}

This sequence has exactly the same number of elements as

Since the first half of the above sequence contain averages

It is easily verified that the original sequence can be reconstructed

This transform is the discrete Haar wavelet transform.