Chapter 22

Chapter 22
Reproduction and Development of

Flowering Plants
Bird: Gay Bumgarner/Alamy; cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Copyright 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Angiosperms success
Angiosperms owe their success to three
adaptations:
1. Pollen (no need for water to reproduce)
2. Seeds (protect embryo during dormancy and
nourish seedling)
3. Flowers (promote pollination, develop into
fruits for seed dispersal)
Angiosperm Reproduction
Flowers and seeds are produced by angiosperms that
sexually reproduce, yielding genetically unique offspring
with traits derived from two parents.
Section 22.1 Bee: Martin Ruegner/Photodisc/Getty Images RF; bird: Gay Bumgarner/Alamy
Some species of angiosperms also reproduce asexually (aka
vegetative reproduction), forming new individuals by mitotic
division. Offspring produced asexually are genetically identical
to each other and to their parents.
Section 22.1 Aspens and kalanchoe leaves: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

Figure 22.1
Asexual reproduction is advantageous when conditions are
stable and plants are well-adapted to their surroundings.
Sexual reproduction produces variable offspring,

increasing reproductive success in a changing world.
Aspens and kalanchoe leaves: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch; Bee: Martin Ruegner/Photodisc/Getty Images RF; bird: Gay
Section 22.1 Bumgarner/Alamy; bee: Martin Ruegner/Photodisc/Getty Images RF; bird: Gay Bumgarner/Alamy
Figure 22.1
The new gene combinations associated with
sexual reproduction in plants are the result of:
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis
c. Cloning
d. Both b and c are correct
Angiosperm Life Cycle
The angiosperm
life cycle is an
alternation of
generations with
multicellular
diploid and
haploid stages.
Section 22.2 Copyright 2016 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 16.5
Flowers
The first step in

angiosperm
reproduction is
the formation
of flowers on
the mature
sporophyte.
They are
reproductive
organs that
bring together
eggs and sperm
Figure 22.2
Flowers
A typical flower has four

whorls of structures, all
of which are modified
leaves.
The receptacle is the

attachment point for all
four whorls, and is part
of the floral stalk.
Figure 22.3
Flowers
The outer whorl (ring of

parts) consists of sepals,
leaf like structures which
enclose and protect the
inner floral parts.
Figure 22.3
Flowers
The second whorl is

made of petals. These
usually have bright or
white (for night time
pollinators) coloration to
attract insects and other
pollinators.
Figure 22.3
Flowers
The third whorl is the

male reproductive parts.
Stamens are filaments
with pollen-producing
anthers on top.
Figure 22.3
Flowers
The fourth whorl is the

female reproductive
parts. A carpel includes:
-the ovary, which
encloses one or more
ovules.
-a stalk-like style. The top
of the style, called the
stigma, receives pollen.
Figure 22.3
Incomplete flowers
In some species, the sexes are separate,
meaning a flower is either male OR female,
but not both. A plant might produce separate
sex flowers, or just one type of flower.
Eudicots & Dicots
Most monocots (i.e. lilies, tulips) have petals,
stamens, and other flower parts in multiples
of three
Most eudicots (i.e. buttercups, geraniums)

have flower parts in multiples of four or five.
Flowers
Inside the flower,

meiosis produces
haploid spores that
develop into
gametophytes.
Figure 16.5
Flowers
Anthers produce male

gametophytes (pollen grains).
Pollen sac
Ovule
Ovules produce female
gametophytes (embryo sacs).
Pollen Microspores
grains
Megaspores
(three
degenerate)
Ovule Polar nuclei
Egg
Figure 22.2
Flowers
Some flowers (about 10% of
angiosperms) release pollen grains in
the wind.
- These flowers are usually small
and odorless, because the plant
doesnt need to spend energy
attracting pollinators.
- A disadvantage is that wind blown
pollen is wasteful so the plant
must produce copious amounts.
- Seasonal allergies: oaks,
cottonwood, ragweed, grasses
Section 22.2 Pollen: Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Science Source

Figure 22.4
Flowers
Other flowers attract

animal pollinators, which
unwittingly carry pollen
between plants.
Often, the pollinator

benefits from its
association with plants
animals use plants for
food, shelter, or a mating
ground.
Hummingbird: Corbis RF; butterfly: MedioImages/Getty Images RF; bat: Merlin D.

Section 22.2 Tuttle/Bat Conservation International/Science Source
Figure 22.4
Co-evolution
Coevolution: A genetic change in one species
selects for subsequent change in the genome
of another species. This is likely to occur when
a plant has an exclusive relationship with just
one pollinator species.
An imperfect flower is one that lacks either male or female parts.
A flower lacking male parts would still produce
A. pollen.
B. anthers.
C. an embryo sac.
D. egg cells.
E. Both an embryo sac and eggs cells are correct.
Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Where would you find a male gametophyte in
an angiosperm?
a. Inside a ripe pollen sac
b. Inside an ovule
c. Inside the embryo sac
d. Both c and d are correct
An imperfect flower is one that lacks either male or female parts.
A flower lacking male parts would still produce
A. pollen.
B. anthers.
C. an embryo sac.
D. egg cells.
E. Both an embryo sac and egg cells are correct.

Double Fertilization
If a pollen grain lands on

a receptive stigma, Pollen
pollination occurs. grains
Double fertilization is
where sperm nuclei
fertilize the egg AND the
Ovule
central cells two nuclei, Polar nuclei
Egg
forming a zygote and a
triploid tissue called
endosperm.
Figure 22.2
When the pollen grain

germinates, a pollen
tube begins to grow
toward the ovule.
Figure 22.5
Two sperm nuclei travel

through the pollen tube
to the ovule.
Figure 22.5
The stage is now

set for fertilization.
Figure 16.5
Angiosperm Life Cycle Includes Flowers,
Fruits, and Seeds
In double fertilization, these sperm nuclei fertilize the egg and the
two polar nuclei.
Figure 22.5
Double fertilization results in a diploid zygote and triploid

endosperm nucleus.
Figure 22.5
Seeds
Endosperm After fertilization,

Embryo
Seed coat the seed starts to
develop.
A seed consists of
an embryo,
endosperm, and
seed coat.
Figure 22.2
Seeds
The zygote
develops from a
single cell into
an embryo.
Figure 22.6
Seeds
Cotyledons are
the embryos
seed leaves.
They carry out
photosynthesis for
a short time but
they are not true
leaves. Embryonic
shoots and roots
also form.
Figure 22.6
Seeds
Endosperm cells divide rapidly and nourish the embryo.
Section 22.2 Corn and Shepherds purse: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

Figure 22.7
Seeds
The seed coat is a tough outer layer that protects

the embryo from damage, dehydration, and predators.
Section 22.2 Corn and Shepherds purse: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

Figure 22.7
Seeds
Seed dormancy is a crucial adaptation because it
ensures that seeds have time to disperse away
from the parent plant before germinating. It
enables seeds to postpone development if the
environment isnt favorable.
Hormonal signals tell cells in the embryo and
endosperm to stop dividing and the seed
gradually loses moisture and enters dormancy.
The seed consumes the parents resources until it
actually enters dormancy
The number of ovules in a flower is typically
_________ the number of seeds in the fruit that
develops after fertilization.
a. Less than
b. Equal to
c. Greater than
d. Unrelated to
How does endosperm develop inside the seed?
a. It receives nutrients from the embryo
b. It receives nutrients from the parent plant
c. It produces its own nutrients as it divides
d. All of the above are correct
Fruits
At the same time, a fruit

develops from the ovary
enclosing the developing
Endosperm seed(s).
Embryo
Seed coat - Ethylene at the stigma
stimulates unneeded
flower parts such as
stamens and petals to
wither/fall.
- Auxin in the developing
seed triggers fruit
formation
Figure 22.2
Fruits
These photos show how the fruit forms.

After pollination, the flower loses its petals.
Section 22.2 Photos: Brent Seabrook

Figure 22.8
Angiosperms and humans reproduce sexually. Pollination in plants is
analogous to ___ in humans; seed development in plants is
analogous to ___ in humans.
A. sexual intercourse; growth of the fetus

B. dating; going through puberty
C. fertilization; early childhood
D. gamete formation; birth
E. None of the choices is correct.

Angiosperms and humans reproduce sexually. Pollination in plants
is analogous to ___ in humans; seed development in plants is
analogous to ___ in humans.
A. sexual intercourse; growth of the fetus

B. dating; going through puberty
C. fertilization; early childhood
D. gamete formation; birth
E. None of the choices is correct.

Fruits
Simple fruits are

derived from one
flower with one carpel.
Section 22.2 Cherry and pineapple: Ingram Publishing RF/Alamy; strawberry: Corbis RF
Table 22.1
Fruits
Aggregate fruits are

derived from one
flower with many
separate carpels.
Table 22.1
Fruits
Multiple fruits are

derived from tightly
clustered flowers
whose ovaries fuse
as the fruit develops.
Table 22.1
Fruits
Fruits protect and

disperse seeds.
Seeds carried away
from parent plants
decrease the
chance of competition
among parents,
offspring, and siblings.
Section 22.2 Bird: Bill Draker/Getty Images RF; dog: Scott Camazine/Science Source; dandelion: Dimitri Vervitsiotis/Getty Images RF
Figure 22.9
Fruits
Unripe fruits, which

contain immature
seeds, are usually
distasteful. Ripe fruits
are tasty; mature seeds
are deposited in
droppings.
Figure 22.9
Fruits
Prickly fruits stick

to feathers or fur.
Figure 22.9
Fruits
Some fruits catch the

wind with tufts of fluff
(dandelions, maple)
Still others float in

water currents (i.e.
coconuts, gourds)
Figure 22.9
Fruits
Fruit can develop even in the absence of
fertilization (oranges/ watermelons)
Sometimes the embryos die during development
after fertilization (grapes, bananas)
These are produced asexually by grafting or
taking cuttings
Seedless watermelons are triploid hybrids, which
are sterile. The white hulls do not contain
seeds.
Seed Germination
Germination: the resumption of

growth and development after a
period of seed dormancy.
Germination requires water, O2,

and a favorable temperature.
The seed absorbs water and

swells, rupturing the seed coat
and exposing the embryo to O2.
Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn

Figure 22.10
Seed Germination
Meanwhile, enzymes break

down the endosperms
starch into sugars.
The availability of O2 and

sugars means cellular
respiration can resume in
the embryo. Cell division at
apical meristems rapidly
lengthens the young roots
and shoot.

Figure 22.10
Seed Germination
At first, the only energy

source is fuel stored in the
endosperm.
After the shoot emerges

from the ground and the
first leaves unfold,
photosynthesis begins.

Figure 22.10
Seed Germination
Monocots and eudicots, two groups of plants,

have slightly different development patterns.
Monocot development Eudicot development
Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn; eudicot: Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

Figure 22.10
A seed that lands on dry pavement is unlikely to germinate because
it does not receive enough
A. light.
B. oxygen.
C. food.
D. water.

A seed that lands on dry pavement is unlikely to germinate because it
does not receive enough
A. light.
B. oxygen.
C. food.
D. water.

Hormones
A hormone is a biochemical produced in one
part of an organism and transported to
another location, where it triggers a response
from target cells.
A hormone can diffuse from cell to cell or
move larger distances via the xylem or phloem
When the hormone reaches the target cell, it
binds to a receptor protein and begins a
cascade of chemical reactions.
Plant Hormones
Chemicals called hormones

travel between cells and
regulate many aspects of
plant growth.
Cytokinins
Gibberellins
Ethylene
Abscisic acid
Auxins
Section 22.4 Apical dominance: Nigel Cattlin/Alamy

Figure 22.11
Plant Hormones
Auxins stimulate fruit

development, control
elongation of cells in a stem,
and suppress growth of
lateral buds.
-Auxins are primarily released

from the shoot tip

Figure 22.11
Plant Hormones
Cytokinins stimulate cell

division in many plant parts,
delay shedding of leaves, and
stimulate growth of lateral
buds.
-Cytokinins are primarily

released from the roots.

Figure 22.11
Plant Hormones
The counteracting effect of

these hormones is called
apical dominance.
-If the shoot tip is in place,

auxins suppress the growth of
lateral buds.
-Removing the shoot tip

reduces the auxin
concentration. Cytokinins
stimulate cell division in
lateral buds.

Figure 22.11
Plant Hormones
Gibberellins also stimulate

shoot elongation. Farmers use
these hormones to stimulate
stem elongation and fruit
growth.
Section 22.4 Man with plants: Al Fenn/The Life Picture Collection/Getty Images
Figure 22.12
Plant Hormones
Ethylene hastens fruit

ripening and stimulates
shedding of leaves, flowers,
and fruits.
-one bad apple spoils the

bushel
Ethylene caused the flowers on the left to
wither. The flowers on the right are
- Ethylene treatment at
genetically engineered to have mutant grocery stores yield ripe-
ethylene receptor genes. looking young fruit
Section 22.4 Flower: Dr. David G. Clark and Dr. Harry Klee
Figure 22.A
Plant Hormones
Abscisic acid (ABA) inhibits

shoot growth, maintains seed
dormancy, and stimulates
closure of stomata and
shedding of plant parts.
- Commercial growers apply

ABA to inhibit the growth of
nursery plants so that
shipping is less likely to
damage them
Section 22.4 Tree: L. West/Science Source

Figure 22.13
Researchers first discovered gibberellins in diseased rice plants. A
gibberellin-producing fungus infected the plants, causing abnormal
growth. How do you think the researchers could identify the
infected plants in the field?
A. The plants were abnormally short.

B. The plants were abnormally tall.
C. The plants shed their leaves.

Researchers first discovered gibberellins in diseased rice plants. A
gibberellin-producing fungus infected the plants, causing
abnormal growth. How do you think the researchers could
identify the infected plants in the field?
A. The plants were abnormally short.

B. The plants were abnormally tall.
C. The plants shed their leaves.

In 1864 Germany began using ethylene in a mixture of
gasses to fuel street lamps. Shortly thereafter, they
noticed that
a. The trees grew taller at the apical meristems
b. The trees became bushier at the lateral buds
c. The trees began producing ripened looking fruit
that tasted sour
d. The trees began losing their leaves
Pruning stimulates the growth of new branches.
What hormonal changes occur in the lateral buds
after the shoot tip is pruned?
a. Both auxins and cytokinins increase in
concentration
b. Both auxins and cytokinins decrease in
concentration
c. Auxins increase in concentration, while
cytokinins decrease in concentration
d. Cytokinins increase in concentration while
auxins decrease in concentration
An overripe orange releases ______, stimulating
other nearby oranges to ripen.
a. Gibberellins
b. Abscisic acid
c. Ethylene
d. Cytokinins
Light
Phototropism is a plants
tendency to grow toward or
away from light.
Photoreceptors: molecules
that detect the quality and
quantity of light. Light
absorption triggers a change
in the receptors shape.
Tropism: the orientation of a

plant part toward or away
from a stimulus
Section 22.5 Sunflower: Leonard Lessin/Science Source
Figure 22.4
Light
The hormone auxin has a role
in phototropism. As auxin
molecules migrate away from
light, they accumulate on the
shaded side of a stem.
Auxin causes water to enter

cells on the shaded side of
the stem. As a result, the cells
elongate, bending the stem
toward the light.
- lucky bamboo
Figures 22.14
Light
Photoperiod: day length

also influences flower
development.
-short days (towards

winter)-> formation of
buds, loss of leaves,
dormancy
- Long days (towards
spring) -> buds resume
growth
Figure 22.15
Chrysanthemums are long-night plants that flower
in the fall. If you could manipulate photoperiod,
what would be the best way to prevent mums from
blooming (without killing the plant)?
a. Never expose the mums to light at all

b. Interrupt each night with a flash of light
c. Interrupt each day with a period of darkness
d. Make sure each interrupted night lasts longer
than the critical period
Gravity and Touch
Gravitropism is directional
growth in response to gravity.
Shoots always grow upward.
Roots always grow
downward.
Section 22.6 Sprouts: Martin Shields/Alamy

Figure 22.16
Gravity and Touch
Starch-filled organelles sink to the bottom of cells

and therefore might help plants detect gravity.
Section 22.6 Sprouts: Martin Shields/Alamy

Figure 22.16
Gravity and Touch
Plants also respond

directionally to touch, a
reaction called thigmotropism.
-i.e. coiling tendrils of twining
plants
-specialized epidermal cells
detect contact with an object,
which stimulate the tendril to
bend in only about 5-10
minutes around the object.
(Auxins & ethylene)
Section 22.6 Thigmotropism: blickwinkel/Alamy

Figure 22.17
Thigmotropism allows climbing plants to wrap tendrils around a
supportive structure (like a trellis). This adaptation improves the
plants ability to
A. absorb food through their roots.

B. absorb food through their leaves.
C. absorb O2.
D. acquire light.
E. absorb water.

Thigmotropism allows climbing plants to wrap tendrils around a
supportive structure (like a trellis). This adaptation improves the
plants ability to
A. absorb food through their roots.

B. absorb food through their leaves.
C. absorb O2.
D. acquire light.
E. absorb water.

What type of tropism is adaptive to a developing
plant?
a. Phototropism
b. Gravitropism
c. Thigmotropism
d. All are adaptive
Investigating Life: A Red Hot Chili Pepper Paradox
Why would natural selection favor

spicy chili peppers, when one of the
main function of fruits is seed
dispersal?
Section 22.6 Figure 21.1

Mammals, but not birds,

avoid the spicy chemical
in pungent chili peppers.
Chili seeds eaten by mice
and pack rats are
destroyed, but they pass
through birds intact.
Figure 22.B
Natural selection favors

adaptations that deter
seed-destroyers but not
beneficial dispersers.
Figure 22.B
How do auxins participate in gravitropism?

When are sexual and asexual reproduction each adaptive?

List the major classes of plant hormones and name some of their
functions.

What is auxins role in phototropism?

What can you conclude about the function of spicy chemicals in
mature chili fruits?


Chapter 22

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Chapter 22

Reproduction and Development of

Bird: Gay Bumgarner/Alamy; cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Section 22.1 Aspens and kalanchoe leaves: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

Sexual reproduction produces variable offspring,

The first step in

A typical flower has four

The receptacle is the

The outer whorl (ring of

The second whorl is

The third whorl is the

The fourth whorl is the

Most eudicots (i.e. buttercups, geraniums)

Inside the flower,

Anthers produce male

Section 22.2 Pollen: Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Science Source

Other flowers attract

Often, the pollinator

Hummingbird: Corbis RF; butterfly: MedioImages/Getty Images RF; bat: Merlin D.

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

If a pollen grain lands on

When the pollen grain

Two sperm nuclei travel

The stage is now

Double fertilization results in a diploid zygote and triploid

Endosperm After fertilization,

Section 22.2 Corn and Shepherds purse: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

The seed coat is a tough outer layer that protects

Section 22.2 Corn and Shepherds purse: McGraw-Hill Education/Steven P. Lynch

At the same time, a fruit

These photos show how the fruit forms.

Section 22.2 Photos: Brent Seabrook

A. sexual intercourse; growth of the fetus

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

A. sexual intercourse; growth of the fetus

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Simple fruits are

Aggregate fruits are

Multiple fruits are

Fruits protect and

Unripe fruits, which

Prickly fruits stick

Some fruits catch the

Still others float in

Germination: the resumption of

Germination requires water, O2,

The seed absorbs water and

Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn

Meanwhile, enzymes break

The availability of O2 and

Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn

At first, the only energy

After the shoot emerges

Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn

Monocots and eudicots, two groups of plants,

Section 22.3 Sprout: Dwight Kuhn; eudicot: Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Cover: Getty Images/Mike McKen

Chemicals called hormones

Section 22.4 Apical dominance: Nigel Cattlin/Alamy

Auxins stimulate fruit

-Auxins are primarily released