Leadership Theories

and Model
Early Leadership Theories

Trait Theories
Behavioral Theories
Situational or Contingency Theories
Trait Theories

It assumes that a person must have certain innate abilities or personality

traits in order to be a leader
Assumes that people inherit extraordinary qualities and traits that make them
better suited for leadership
They believe that leaders are born, that they have special traits that make
them leaders like tireless ambition, zest for life, great orator skills,
irresistible good looks, and extremely persuasive
Great Man Theory this theory assumes that the capacity for leadership is
inherent, that great leaders are born, not made
Common Traits of Leaders

1. Positive leaders who have positive traits bring people to progress

- They are cheerful, forgiving, intelligent, and good looking men and
women, among others
2. Negative take people to destruction
- they are bitter, aggressive, loud-mouthed, sullen and ugly people
 Stogdill (1974) was one of the first who identified particular personality or
behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. He found that leaders tended to
be higher than non-leaders on: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence,
activity level, and knowledge of the task
Traits and Skills of Leaders by Stogdill

Traits skills
Adaptable to situations clever (intelligent)
Alert to social environment Conceptually skilled
Ambitious and achievement-oriented Creative
Assertive Diplomatic and tactful
Cooperative Fluent in speaking
Decisive Knowledgeable about group task
Dependable Organized (administrative ability)
Dominant (desire to influence Persuasive
others) Socially skilled
Energetic (high activity level)
Persistent
Self-confident
Tolerant of stress
Willing to assume responsibility
Individual Character Theory

Distinctive physical and psychological individual characteristics account for

leadership effectiveness
Those who are naturally taller, attractive, intelligent, self-reliant, and
creative are chosen to lead
Behavioral Theories

Concerned with what leaders do and act than who the leader is
The actions of the leaders and not their mental qualities or traits make them
leaders
Based upon the belief than leaders are made, not born
People can be taught to become leaders through experience and observation
Behavioral Theorists:
Kurt Lewin
Rensis Likert
Blake Mouton
Chris Argyris
Alvin Toffler
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

Proposed that the workers behavior is influenced by interactions among the personality, the
structure of the primary work group, and the socio-technical climate of the workplace
He was the one who categorized the leadership styles
He also developed the Field Theory of Human Behavior he believed that people act the
way they do depending on self-perceptions and their environments. To understand a leaders
behavior or that of a follower, one must look at the totality of the individuals experience
He also proposed that change undergoes three stages:
Unfreezing overcoming inertia and dismantling the mind set. Defense mechanisms have to be
bypassed and replace the previous culture learned with the new one
Change occurs period of confusion and transition. Old ways are being challenged but there is
no clear picture to replace them with yet may be ready to accept new role
Re-freezing the new mindset is crystallizing and ones comfort level is returning to previous
levels. Have internalized new roles and can adapt to new environment and cultre
The Change Process
Stage Characteristics Organizational Impact
Unfreezing People in the organization made The diagnosis stage is often
aware of problems/performance driven by a change agent
gap and need for change
Changing People experiment with new This intervention stage features
workplace behavior to deal with specific training plans for
needed change managers and employees
Re-freezing People employ new skills and Changes are institutionalized in
attitudes and are rewarded by the corporate culture
organization
Chris Argyris (1923- )

An organizational psychologist who sought to study the way in organizations

act and react with each other
He studied the patterns of reasoning that explains ones behavior. These
patterns can get one into trouble if individuals do not reflect and understand
why one does and thinks the way they do. But with proper training one can
become more aware of ones mental models and how they operated
He developed the concepts of:
1. Ladder of Inference
2. Double Looping Learning
Ladder of Inference

Is based on the idea that individuals interpret data to make meaning and
make sense of it
With available data, one then selects to process, interpret, and finally draw
up conclusions. The conclusions that are drawn are not objective, but
subjective. At each step, there is bias in the process depending on ones
experience
Ladder of Inference
Ladder of Inference

The ladder of inference is a reminder that, when communicating, one needs

to communicate not just subjective conclusions, but also the objective
reasoning process and assumptions that underlie the conclusions
Double Loop Learning

Is a learning as a process of detecting and correcting errors

The focus is on solving problems that are complex and ill-structured and
which change as problem-solving advances
Alvin Toffler (1928 - )

Is a futurist known for his works discussing the digital revolution,

communications revolution, corporate revolution, and technological
singularity
He examined technology and its impact to the world and the reaction of and
changes in society
He also categorized the changes in cultural behavior and civilization in terms
of waves such as the First Wave, Second Wave, and Second Wave
He believed that in the third wave, i.e., the post-industrial society and age of
information and knowledge, aging societies will be using new medical
technologies from self-diagnosis to instant analysis of ailments to self-
administered therapies that will be delivered by nanotechnology instead of
doctors and nurses
Rensis Likert (1903 1981)
Is best known for his development of the Likert Scales and the Linking Pin Model
Likert Scale is a five scale measurement tool to determine the level of agreement and
disagreement of a respondent to a set of questions that cold be objective or subjective in
nature. The format is:
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither
4. Agree
5. Strongly disagree

Lingking Pin Model is a concept of ideal work relationship of workers in an organization

- used the concept of family to characterize the desirable
social interaction that should occur between different work units.
- the model hopes to achieve a regularity of practice which
would reinforce the organizational structure laid down by the
organization
Organizational Design by Likert
Authoritative Participative

Exploitative Benevolent Participative

Consultative Group
Authoritative Authoritative

Under this approach:

1. Superiors and subordinate trust each other,
2. Information flows freely downward and laterally,
3. Group participation high and sets realistic goals,
4. Decisions are done through democratic process, and
5. Training human resources and control is done often.
Four Systems Approach by Likert

Exploitative Authoritative
Least effective performance
Managers show little confidence in staff associates and ignore their ideas
Staff associates do not feel free to discus their jobs with the manager
Responsibility for organizations goal is set at the top; goals are
established through orders
Four Systems Approach by Likert

Benevolent-Authoritative
The manager is condescending to staff associates
Staff associate ideas are sometimes sought but they do not feel free to
discuss their jobs with the manager
Top management and middle management are responsible for setting
goals
Decisions are made at the top with some delegation
Staff associates are occasionally consulted for problem solving
Four Systems Approach by Likert

Consultative
The manager has substantial confidence in staff associates
Their ideas are usually sought and they feel free to discuss their work
with the manager
Responsibility for setting goals is fairly general
Managers are quite familiar with the problem faced by their staff
associates
Four Systems Approach by Likert

Participative
Associated with the most effective performance
Managers have complete confidence in their staff associates
Ideas are always sought
Managers are very well informed about the problems faced by their staff
associate and decision making is well integrated throughout the
organization with full involvement of staff associates
Robert R. Blake (1918 2004) and
Jane Mouton ( - 1987)
Developed the Managerial Grid Model which attempts to conceptualize
management in terms of relations and leadership style
It consist of two behavioral dimensions:
1. Concern for task or production the leader cares little about people and
operates in fear of something going wrong. This leaders focus is on achieving
results and productivity
2. Concern for people this leader cares little about productivity and operates
wholly from a desire to be loved and approved of
Three things to remember about the
theorists
1. Leaders lay somewhere along the continuum of concern for productivity to
concern for people
2. There is no one way of leadership
3. Different styles are needed for different situations
The Managerial Grid

High
1,9 9, 9

Country Club Team Leader

Concern for People

Impoverished Authoritarian

1,1 9, 1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 High
Concern for Task
The Managerial Grid

Impoverished Style (1,1)

Description: leaders have low concern for both people and production. This
style is used to avoid getting into trouble
Characteristics: the main concern is not to be held responsible for any
mistakes, which result in less innovative decisions. This is a leader who is
going through the motions and is indifferent, non-committal, resigned and
apathetic. Leaders just do enough to keep their job.
Results: there is disorganization, dissatisfaction, disharmony among people
who due to lack of effective leadership. Leader tries to stay in the same post
for a long time
The Managerial Grid

Country Club (1,9)

Description: leader has a high concern for people and a low concern for
production. Leaders using this style pay much attention to the security and
comfort of the employees, in hopes that this would increase performance
Characteristics: the leader is attentive to his/her peoples needs and has
developed satisfying relationships and work culture, but at the expense of
achieving results. The leader is defined as agreeable, eager to help, non-
confrontational, comforting and uncontroversial
Results: the resulting atmosphere is usually friendly, but not necessarily that
productive
The Managerial Grid

Produce or Perish (9,1)

Description: with a high concern for production, and a low concern for people,
leaders using this style find employee needs unimportant; they provide their
employees with money and expect performance back. Managers using this style
also pressure their employees through rules and punishments to achieve the
company goals
Characteristics: the leader concentrates almost exclusively on achieving results.
People are viewed as commodity to be used to get the job done. Communication is
de-emphasized and conflict is resolved by suppressing it. Leadership is controlling,
demanding and over-powering
Results: this dictatorial style based on Theory X of Douglas McGregor, and is
commonly applied by companies on the edge of real or perceived failure. This is
used in case of crisis management. So, while high output is achieved in a short
time, it becomes costly as there is high labor turn-over
The Managerial Grid

Middle of the Road Style (5,5)

Description: leaders using this style try to balance between company goals
and workers needs. By giving some concern to both people and production,
leaders who use this style hope to achieve acceptable performance
Characteristics: this leader is compromiser who wants to maintain the status
quo and avoid any problems. The leader is aware of and wants to focus on
productivity but not at the expense of the morale of his team
Results: leader compromises in which neither production and peoples needs
are met
The Managerial Grid

Team Styling (9,9)

Description: leaders who use this style rely heavily on making employees feel
as a constructive part of the organization
Characteristics: leaders pay high concern both to people and production.
Leaders encourage teamwork and commitment among employees. The leader
may be characterized as open-minded, flexible and one who inspires
involvement
Results: the leader achieves high work performance through leading his
people to become dedicated to the organizational goals. There is high degree
of participation and teamwork, which satisfies the basic need of people to be
involved and committed to their work.
Situational or Contingency Theories

Different situations demand different types of leadership

A situation, within this context, is a set of vales and attitudes with which the
individual or group has to deal in a process of activity and with regard to
which this activity is planned and its results appreciated. Every concrete
activity is the solution of a situation
It is also called contingency theories because the leadership style would be
dependent on the situation that a leader is faced at the moment. Among its
proponents are Paul hersey, Keneth Blanchard, Fred Fiedler, Vroom and
Yetton, and Robert House
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard

Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style (or maturity),
based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks
there readiness depends on their competence and motivation
Four leadership styles that match the development levels of the followers:
S1: Directing/Telling Leaders
S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders
S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders
S4: Delegating Leaders
S1: Directing/Telling Leaders

The leader defines the roles and tasks of the follower and supervises them
closely
Decisions are made by the leader and announced, so communication is largely
one-way
S2: Coaching/Selling Leaders

The leader still defines roles and tasks, but seeks ideas and suggestions from
the follower. Decisions remain the leaders prerogative, but communication is
much more two-way
S3: Supporting/Participating Leaders

The leader passes day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes,
to the follower. The leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control
is with the follower
S4: Delegating Leaders

Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem-solving, but control is with
the follower. The follower decides when and how the leader will be involved.
Fred Fiedler

Developed his theory around the premise that leaders personal

characteristics are stable, and therefore, so is the leadership style
The Fiedler Contingency Model is a leadership theory that moved from the
research of traits and personal characteristics of leaders to leadership styles
and behaviors
He believed that there is no singe approach that could provide an adequate
solution for the various management problems. His model focused on the
personality and relationship between the leader and the group members,
programming of groups assignment and positional power of the leader.
Fred Fiedler

Three aspects of the situation that needs to be considered:

1. Leader Member Relation refers to how well the manager and the
workers get along
2. Task Structure refers how the nature of the job to be done is highly
structured of fairly unstructured or somewhere in between
3. Position Power refers to how much legitimate authority does the leader-
manager possess
Victor Harold Vroom and Yetton

They suggested that the selection of a leadership style will determine

decision-making
The effectiveness of a decision procedure depends upon a number of aspects
of the situation, such as the:
1. Importance of the decision quality and acceptance;
2. Amount of relevant information possessed by the leader and subordinates;
3. Likelihood that subordinates will accept an autocratic decision or
cooperate in trying to make a good decision if allowed to participate; and
4. Amount of disagreement among subordinates with respect to their
preferred alternatives.
Robert House

Proposed the Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

He said that the leader can affect the performance, satisfaction, and
motivation of a group through rewards, clarification of paths to goals and
removal of obstacles in work performance
To do this, the leader adopts a certain leadership styles:
1. Directive Leadership
2. Supportive Leadership
3. Participative Leadership
4. Achievement-Oriented Leadership
Directive Leadership

Specific advice is given to the group and ground rules and structure are
established
For example: clarified expectations, specifying or assigning certain work tasks
to be followed
Supportive Leadership

Good relations are promoted with the group and sensitivity to subordinates
needs is shown
Participative Leadership

Decision making is based on consultation with the group and information is

shared with the group
Achievement-Oriented Leadership

Challenging goals set and high performance is encouraged while confidence is

shown in the groups ability
Contemporary Leadership Theories

Transactional Leadership Style

Transformational leadership
Servant leadership
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) in Nursing Leadership
Multiple Intelligence in Nursing Leadership
Quantum Leadership
Transactional Leadership Style

The leader motivates the followers by appealing to their own self-interest

Its principles are to motivate by means of the exchange process
The leader is a caretaker who sets goals for employees, focuses on day-to-day
operations and uses management by exception
It is a competitive, task-focused approach that takes place in a hierarchy
For example, hospital owners exchange status and wages for the work effort of
nurse-employee
Transactional leadership encompass 4 types of behavior:
1. Contingent Reward
2. Management by Exception
3. Active management by Exception
4. Laissez-Faire Leadership
Contingent Reward

To influence behavior, the leader clarifies the work needed to be

accomplished. The leader uses rewards or incentives to achieve results when
expectations are met
Management by Exception

To influence behavior, the leader uses correction or punishment as a response

to unacceptable performance or deviation from the accepted standards
It is a conservative approach whereby additional resources are applied in
response to any event falling outside of established parameters
Active management by Exception

To influence behavior, the leader actively monitors the work performed and
uses corrective methods to ensure the work is completed to meet accepted
standards
Laissez-Faire Leadership

The leader is indifferent and has a hands off approach toward the workers
and their performance. This leader ignores the needs of others, does not
respond to problems or does not monitor performance
Transformational Leadership

The most effective and beneficial leadership behavior to achieve long-term

success and improved performance is transformational leadership
The transformational leadership style:
1. Promotes employee development
2. Attends to needs and motives of followers
3. Inspires through optimism, influences changes in perception
4. Provides intellectual stimulation and encourages follower creativity
5. Uses role modelling
6. Provides sense of direction and encourages self-management
Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership
Transactional
Hierarchy
Competitive
Task focus
Exchange posture
Identity needs of followers
Provide rewards to meet needs
Exchange for expected performance
Contract for manual benefits
Contingent rewards
Caretaker
Set goals for employees
Focus on day-to-day operations
Management by exception
Transformational
Networking
Cooperative
Process focus
Promote employee development
Attend to needs and motives of followers
Inspire through optimism
Influence change in perception
Provide for intellectual stimulation
Encouragement of follower creativity
Role model
Individualize consideration
Provide sense of direction
Encouragement of self-management
Servant Leadership

Robert Greenleaf coined the term servant leadership. It emphasizes the

leaders role as steward of the resources such as human, financial, and
otherwise provided by the organization
It encourages leaders to serve others while staying focused on achieving
results in line with the organizations values and integrity
A true servant leader is one that exhibits very specific characteristics:
1.Listening 6.Conceptualization
2.Empathy 7.Foresight
3.Healing 8.Stewardship
4.Awareness 9.Commitment to the growth of
5.Persuasion people
10.Building community
Emotional Intelligence (EQ) in Nursing Leadership

Leadership in nursing demands emotional stability

It requires the ability to relate to others if the leader truly wants to achieve
the desired results
Emotional intelligence is defined as a persons self-awareness, self-
confidence, self control, commitment and integrity, and a persons ability to
communicate, influence, initiate change and accept change
Golemans Four Quadrant Model for
Emotional Intelligence
Self Social
Recognition

Self- Awareness Social Awareness

Self-Confidence Empathy
Emotional Self-Awareness Organizational Awareness
Accurate Self Assessment Service orientation

Self Management Relationship Management

Regulation

Self Control
Trustworthiness Influence
Conscientiousness Inspirational Leadership
Adaptability Developing Others
Achievement Influence
Drive to succeed Building bonds
Initiative Teamwork and Collaboration
Self-Awareness

Emotional self-awareness reading ones own emotions and recognizing their

impact
Accurate self-assessment knowing ones strengths and limits
Self-confidence a sound sense of ones self-worth and capabilities
Self-management or Self-Regulation

Emotional self-control keeping disruptive emotions and impulses under

control
Transparency displaying honesty and integrity; trustworthiness
Adaptability flexibility in adapting to changing situations or overcoming
obstacles
Achievement the drive to improve performance to meet inner standards of
excellence
Initiative readiness to act and seize opportunities
Optimism seeing the upside of events
Social Awareness

Empathy seeing others emotions, understanding their perspective, and

taking active interest in their concerns
Organizational awareness reading the current, decision networks, and
politics at the organizational level
Service recognizing and meeting the needs of followers, clients, or costmers
Relationship Management

Inspirational leadership guiding and motivating with a compelling vision

Influence wielding a range of tactics for persuasion
Developing others bolstering others abilities through feedback and guidance
Change catalyst initiating, managing, and leading in a new direction
Conflict management resolving disagreements
Building bonds cultivating and maintaining a web of relationships
Teamwork and collaboration cooperation and team building
Multiple Intelligences in Nursing Leadership

Howard Gardner who developed this theory suggested that the traditional notion
of intelligence is far too limited.
He proposed 8 different intelligences to account for a broader range of human
potential:
1. Linguistic intelligence (word smart)
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (number/reasoning smart)
3. Spatial intelligence (picture smart)
4. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (body smart)
5. Musical Intelligence (music smart)
6. Interpersonal Intelligence (people smart)
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (self-smart)
8. Naturalist Intelligence (nature smart)
Verbal-Linguistic

Strong in reading, writing, telling stories, memorizing dates, thinking in

words
Like to read, write, talk, work at puzzle
Learns beast through reading, hearing and seeing words, speaking, writing,
discussing and debating
Logical-Mathematical

Strong in math, reason, logic, problem-solving, patterns

Likes to solve problems, question, work with numbers, experiment
Learns best through working with pattern and relationships, classifying,
categorizing, working with abstract
Spatial

Strong in reading, maps, charts, drawing, mazes, puzzles, imaging things,

visualization
Likes to design, draw, build, create, daydream, look at pictures
Learn best through working with pictures and colors, visualizing, drawing
Bodily-Kinesthetic

Strong in athletics, dancing, acting, crafts, using tools

Likes to move around, touch and talk, body language
Learns best through touching, moving, processing knowledge through bodily
sensations
Musical

Strong in - Singing, picking up sounds, remembering melodies, rhythms

Like to sing, hum, play an instrument, listen to music
Learn best through - Rhythm, melody, singing, listening to music and melodies
Interpersonal

Strong in understanding people, leading, organizing, communicating,

resolving conflicts, selling
Likes to have friends, talk to people, join groups
Learns best through sharing, comparing, relating, interviewing, cooperating
Intrapersonal

Strong in understanding self, recognizing strengths and weaknesses, setting

goals
Likes to work alone, reflect, pursue interest
Learns best through - Working alone, doing self-paced projects, having space,
reflecting
Naturalist

Strong in understanding nature, making distinctions, identifying flora and

fauna
Like to be involved with nature, making distinctions
Learns best through working in nature, exploring things, learning about
plants and natural events
Quantum Leadership

Described by Porter-OGrady and Malloch (2003)

They think most leaders are neither fully prepared nor equipped to change
outmoded models because the foundations of their leadership concepts are
based on the past
Control is not the issue; rather, change dominates climate. The quantum
leader recognizes continual movement and change occur in reality and
creativity and innovation are at the core of good work performance
When principle of quantum leadership is applied, healthcare administrators
and faculty can:
1. Recognize how healthcare changes have affected all of them
2. Properly explain each change, actively engage in conflict resolution, and
exchange ideas, and
3. Work together to resolve the difficulties that emerge as their systems
intersect