A Course to survive

Grammar is the study of the rules governing

the use of a given natural language, and, as
such, is a field of linguistics.

Traditionally, grammar included

morphology and syntax.

In modern linguistics these

subfields are complemented
by phonetics, phonology, semantics,
and pragmatics.
 In Linguistics Syntax are the rules of a
language that show how the words of
that language are to be arranged to
make a sentence of that language.
So
It is the study of how words are
combined together to form sentences.
 The five grammatical units:

1. The Sentence: Composed by one 0r more Clauses.

2. The Clause: Composed by one 0r more Phrases.
3. The Phrase: Composed by one 0r more words.
4. The word: Composed by one 0r more morphemes.
5. The Morpheme: The smallest unit in form and meaning.
Classification by structure :

A Simple Sentence
consists of a single independent Clause with no dependent Clauses.
I don't like dogs.
Our school basketball team lost their last game of the season 75-68.

A Compound sentence
consists of multiple independent clauses with no dependent clauses. These clauses
are joined together using Conjunctions, punctuation, or both. (and, but, so, etc)
I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats.
You can write on paper, or you can use a computer.

A Complex Sentence
consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one dependent clause
(That, if, whether, etc)
 A Complex Sentence
consists of one or more independent clauses with at least one
dependent clause (That, if, whether, etc).
I don't like dogs that bark at me when I go past.
You can write on paper, although a computer is better.
None of the students were injured when the tree fell through the
school roof.

A compound-complex sentence
consists of multiple independent clauses, at least one of which has
at least one dependent clause. (Coord and subordinators).
I don't like dogs, and my sister doesn't like cats because they
make her sneeze.
You can write on paper, but using a computer is better as you
can easily correct your mistakes.
The Inspector abandoned the
investigation.
The Inspector abandoned the
investigation but I didnt.
He said that the man was
dead.
 He said that the man was
dead and he abandoned the
investigation.
 Problematic sentence
To write a correct sentence, you need to have a good
understanding of what a sentence is. Students who don't
have this understanding, or don't take care, often include
problem sentences in their writing. Native English speakers
are just as likely to write problem sentences as ESL
students. There are three main types of problem sentence:
Run-on sentence: These are two sentences that the
writer has not separated with an end punctuation mark,
or has not joined with a conjunction.
e.g: I went to Paris in the vacation it is the most beautiful place I have
ever visited.
It's never too late to learn to swim you never know when you may fall
from a boat.
If you're going to the shops can you buy me some eggs and flour I want
 Sentence fragments: Fragment sentences are unfinished
sentences, i.e. they don't contain a complete idea. A common
fragment sentence in student writing is a dependent clause standing
alone without an independent clause. In the each of the following
examples the fragment is the second 'sentence', shown in red:
I don't think I'm going to get a good grade. Because I didn't
study.
She got angry and shouted at the teacher. Which wasn't a very
good idea.
He watched TV for an hour and then went to bed. After falling
asleep on the sofa.
She got up and ran out of the library. Slamming the door behind
her.
Rambling sentences: A rambling sentence
is a sentence made up of many clauses,
often connected by a coordinating
conjunction such as and, or, so.
John usually gets up before 7 o'clock, but
yesterday his alarm clock did not ring, so he
was still asleep when his boss called him at
10.30 to ask where he was and tell him that
he would lose his job if he was late again.
 According to Syntax the component parts of
a sentence are called CONSTITUENTS
Which are the natural groupings of a
sentence.

Each of them has:

a Grammatical Category (Whether it is a noun phrase, a
verb phrase, etc)
and

a Grammatical Function (whether it is the subject, or

object, or predicate, etc)
A constituent is formed if
1) Constituents can stand alone
Ex. What did you find? A puppy (not found a)

2) Constituents can be replaced by one word.

Ex. Where did you find a puppy? I found HIM in
the park.

3) Constituents move together.

Ex. It was [a puppy] that the child found.
[A puppy] was found by the child.
 CONSTITUENTS
Categories Functions
Noun Phrase Subject
Verb Phrase Predicate
Adjectival Phrase Verb Auxiliary Verb
Adverbial Phrase Direct Object
Prepositional Phrase Indirect Object
Gerundial Phrase Subjective Complement
Infinitival Phrase Objective Complement
Participial Phrase Quasi-predicative
Noun Clause Adverbial Adjunct
That Noun Clause Real Subject in Extra Position
If/Whether or not Clause Anticipatory Subject
Wh- interrogative Clause Anticipatory Object
Nominal Noun Clauses Predicator Complement
Defining Relative Clause Prepositional Complement
Non-Defining Relative Clause Adjectival Complement
All sentences are about something or someone.
The something or someone that the
sentence is about is called the subject of
the sentence .
Categories Functioning as Subject:

1. A Noun Phrase The Car is White.

2. A Pronoun He is Tall.
3. A Gerund Smoking is bad .
4. An Infinitive To study Grammar is Fun.
5. A Noun Clause What he said is right.
 More examples of the subject

In the following sentences the subjects are shown in red. Note how the
subject is often, but not always, the first thing in the sentence.

o John often comes late to class.

My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.
o Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in
2004.
o The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down to
make way for a new supermarket.
o On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.
o Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the students
are well-prepared.
o Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby
The predicate contains information about the
someone or something that is the subject. Verbs
can be either Transitive or Intransitive; and
their predication can be either Complete or
Incomplete.

I.V.C.P = S + [ V + (A.A) ]
T.V.C.P = S + [ V + D.O + (A.A) ]
BI T.V.C.P = S+ [ V+ D.O. + I.O + (A.A) ]
T.V.I.P = S + [ V + D.O. + O.C + (A.A)]
I.V.I.P = [V + S.C + (A.A) ]
 Simple subject/ predicate
The example sentences above are shown again, this time with the
predicate marked in green.
John often comes late to class.
My friend and I both have a dog named Spot.
Many parts of the Asian coastline were destroyed by a tsunami in
2004.
The old hotel at the end of the street is going to be knocked down
to make way for a new supermarket.
On Saturdays I never get up before 9 o'clock.
Before giving a test the teacher should make sure that the
students are well-prepared.
Lying on the sofa watching old films is my favourite hobby.
 Categories that function as S.C:

1. An adjective: It was Dark

2. A participle: That is interesting
3. A prepositional Phrase: It is near London.
4. A noun Phrase: This is a book
5. A gerundial Phrase: That is cheating!
6. A noun Clause: That is what I want
7. An Adverbial Phrase: He is out.
8. An Infinitival Phrase: To see him is to love him.
Look,sound, taste, smell, feel
Appear, Seem
Lie, Stand, rest, remain, keep
1. Dynamic Verbs or Inchoative Verbs:
To become, to come, to get, to go, to grow, to fall, to run,
to turn.
Has the following characteristics:
1. It may become the subject of the passive.
2. It answers the question What.

Categories Functioning as D.O:

1. A Noun Phrase He has lit a cigarret.

2. A Pronoun Dont hit me.
3. A Gerund He loves reading .
4. An Infinitive I want to go away.
5. A Noun Clause Describe what you saw
 The person who receives something (D.O)
For + NP= Intended I.O I bought a Sweater for John.

Categories Functioning as I.O:

A Noun Phrase I gave the beggar a coin
A Pronoun Give me that.
A Gerund Give studing a bit of chance.
A Prepositional Phrase He gave it to me
A Noun Clause Give whoever comes this box.
 The relation between D.O and the O.C is that of S P
An easy test for O.C I thought her beautiful She (her) is beautiful

Categories Functioning as O.C:

A Noun Phrase We appointed Newton President.
A Noun Clause We made him what he is.
A Gerund I call that Cheating.
An Infinitival Phrase I don`t want anyone to know
A Prepositional Phrase We left her in tears
An Adjectival Phrase I found the box empty.
A Participial Phrase I heard my name called